2.7 Communication Strategies

2.7.1 Definition of Communication Strategies

The term communication strategies was first coined by Selinker （1972）. Communication strategies may be defined as the means by which communication goals can be fulfilled. Such strategies are needed to overcome the complexities of the communication process（Te'eni,2001）.The term“communication strategies”is borrowed from the literature on inter-language communication to denote ways in which people tackle and overcome problems in pursuing a communicative goal （Kasper and Kellerman, 1997）. Moreover, communication strategies are further defined as potentially conscious plans for solving communicative problem in reaching a particular communicative goal. In a narrow sense, communication strategies can be defined as the techniques one uses when facing problems in the process of achieving a communicative goal. In a broad sense, however, communication strategies refer not only to the problem-oriented techniques but also to those general techniques one employs to attain a special communicative goal （a problem-free one）. Characteristics for communication strategies are that communication strategies are chiefly problem-oriented and potentially conscious. From the psychological point of view, communication strategies can be classified into achievement strategy and reduction strategy. The former includes cooperative and non-cooperative strategies while the latter includes formal reduction strategy and functional reduction strategy （Yang, & Gai, 2010）.

2.7.2 Intra-Organizational Communication Strategies

Te'eni （2001） develops a cognitive-affective model of organization communication, which offers some implications for business communication beyond organizations as indicated in Fig. 2.2.

As pointed out in Chapter one, there are three different stages in the communication process: the creation of a message by the sender, the transmission of the message between sender and receiver, and the receipt of the message by the receiver. Thus, communication strategies define the way to achieve the following activities: （1） creation-building cognitive and affective components in the message;（2） transmission-controlling the information transmission through planning and through testing; and （3） receipt-considering the receiver's perspective on the issue and affecting the receiver's information processing. Te'eni （2001） identifies the following six strategies to realize all these activities in the communication process.

Contextualization

Contextualization may be described as the provision of explicit context in the message. It requires the sender to build an explicit interpretation of the issue as opposed to noting only the desired reaction or core message. Thus, contextualization is central to theories of comprehension and is necessary for improved problem solving performance. Context is usually constructed through layers around the core message that explains, among other issues, the following: how an action can be performed; how it can be broken down into sub-actions; how the action answers its motivation; what information may be related to the message; what alternative interpretations are possible. In information systems, the connotation of contextualization is narrower: it seeks to elucidate the situation in which the message is created, detailing such issues as who is communicating with whom, when, and under what conditions.

Affectivity

Affectivity may be seen to be the inclusion of affective components in the message that describe emotions and moods, not necessarily pleasant ones. Emotions are more intense, relatively short-lived, and usually prompted by a clear trigger, such as excitement about the prospects of success, an apology, and the pleasure of meeting someone. Moods, such as the state of feeling good, are rather longer term affective states, usually with no salient cause. Affectivity can be used to motivate, e.g., to sustain favorable attitudes and dispositions, and to inform, e.g., provide information about the subjective evaluation of a product. Indeed, such a quality is needed to cope with potential communication problems due to affective complexity.

Control by Testing and Control by Planning

Control is largely a matter of overseeing and, if necessary, adjusting the communication process to assure effective communication. There is a need for maintaining coherence in discourse and managing dominance and control, and a need for coordinating content and process. Moreover, different levels of control are needed for different types of goals. Control can take two basic forms: （1） planning the pattern of communication, and if necessary contingency patterns, ahead of the process, and （2） testing and adjusting on the basis of feedback during the process. People are capable of recognizing and adopting spontaneous versus planned communication, depending on whether the interdependence between them is parallel or sequential. For planned control, one needs to consider whether the communication process is pre-determined, leaving the locus of control with the sender, or whether it is flexible, leaving open the progression of communication and letting control shift from one partner to another. A particular characteristic of control through planning is the clear designation of who does what in the communication process and a distinction between plan and implementation. In planned control, message redundancy, especially repetition of key ideas, is used to ensure successful communication.

Sometimes, senders copy messages to other people with the sole intention of pressuring the receiver to take action. Additionally, the sender may send the same message several times, rephrase messages, and summarize previous communication. Important characteristics of this control behavior are, therefore, redundancy and repeated communication and multiple recipients. In seeking to achieve control through testing and adjusting, the sender plays an active part in ensuring that the process works well. Timely feedback is, of course, essential for effective control.

Perspective Taking

Perspective taking is concerned with whether the receiver's view and attitude are a target of the communication or whether they are left outside the scope of communication. This strategy includes both cognitive and affective aspects of the receiver's perspective. Perspective taking, in which the sender actively considers （imagines） the receiver's point of view, is necessary for the communication to be comprehensible. At a minimum, it requires a communicator to consider what his/her partner sees and hears of the message. In most cases, the term involvement is used to describe a communication strategy in relational communication tostress the sender's involvement in the receiver's world, but include in it the way that world is seen publicly. Perspective taking can best be demonstrated by taking interest in the receivers' viewpoints, inquiring about their affairs and attitudes and supporting them, sharing common beliefs and talking in a personal style. It usually includes the sender's expression of attitude that can be characterized by the use of magnifying adverbs and attitudinally loaded words.

Attention Focusing

In attention focusing, also known as“flagging”or“contextualization cues”, the sender attempts to direct or even manipulate the receiver's processing of the message. In organizational theory, attention focusing is a well-known strategy used by managers who wish to direct knowledge acquisition. At the level of communicating a message, attention focusing may involve highlighting parts of the message, switching from small to large letters, shouting after talking softly. This process involves the use of various techniques to affect information processing, such as switching format （size, uppercase, underline, etc.） switching styles, and creating an unusual composition （e.g., sequence of sentences, repeats, headings）. Using some of these techniques in moderation is common, but deliberate, sophisticated and pervasive use of multiple techniques cannot be taken for granted. Moreover, in itself, attention focusing introduces complexity and should be applied with care （Te'eni,2001）.