有生之属,莫不趋生避死;独人类不然,而有自杀之举。禽兽亦有自杀者,如丧偶之天鹅、获捕之山魈、搁浅之海鲸,所在多有;然观其所为,皆似出于本能,而人之自杀不无理智考虑,其动机、方式与后果亦洋洋不一。谓自杀为人类特有之行为,不亦宜乎?虽然,人之向生本能(biophilia)异常顽强,适足抗衡人类之“死亡本能”[89],于是生种种禁忌敁敠。如哈姆雷特既痛父王之遽然去世,复慊母后之率尔再嫁,心碎气结(I,ii,165:“But break my heart,for I must hold my tongue! ”),因萌轻生之念(id,135136:“O that this too too solid flesh would melt,/Thaw,and resolve itself into a dew! ”)。其所以踌躇者,基督教有禁杀之令[90](id,137138:“that the Everlasting had not fixed/His canon' gainst selfslaughter! ”),且不知死后毕竟何如也(III,i,74 &8690:“in that sleep of death what dreams may come”,“that the dread of something after death—/The undiscovered country,from whose bourn/No traveller returns—puzzles the will,/And makes us rather bear those ills we have/Than fly to others that we know not of”)。噫,从容赴死亦难矣哉!
初,个人乃宗族或宗教共同体之一员,以共同体立场观之,即公共之资产,故“此身非我有”,本人无权处置,自杀者不得辞其咎焉。亚里士多德曾于《伦理学》十章末申说此意,以为自杀违背“正理”(Right Reason),在城邦为“不义”,故足耻而当惩云云[91]。再如基督教以为上帝造人,故生命属于上帝,而自杀悖逆神意,死后将堕地狱[92],其说变本加厉矣。中国之例,如《论语·泰伯第八》载:
曾子有疾,召门弟子曰:“启予足!启予手!《诗》云:战战兢兢,如临深渊,如履薄冰。而今而后,吾知免夫!小子![93]
所谓“身体发肤,受之父母,不敢毁伤,孝之始也”(《孝经·开宗明义章第一》[94]),个人当为家族全生保命,“慎终追远”、死而后免,故自杀为极端不孝之罪行也明矣[95]。中西合璧,乃有所谓“自绝于人民”之妙论。“人民”云尔,教主而兼家长之谓也,“其义则丘窃取之矣”。
欧洲中世纪之后,权威崩落解散,而个体意识贲张奋扬。我身既属我有,则其取舍在我;于是自杀之禁稍去,而“吾丧我”之风渐渐播长矣。其典型者莫如英国,16世纪时厌世者逐年增长[96],文学作品中涉及自杀者蔚成风习。1580-1620年40年间,英伦演剧百余部,其中可见两百余自杀事件;以莎剧而论,涉及自杀者即达五十二种之多[97]。如《哈姆雷特》一剧,王子恋人Ophelia与王后Gertrude即分以投水饮鸩而亡[98]。按《哈》剧作于1600年前后,时值文艺复兴末期,“巨人”(men of aggrandizement)式豪情黯然摧剥,而悲凉之雾渐布人心。如哈姆雷特既以半神(Hercules)自况(V, I,294-295:“Let Hercules himself do what he may, /The cat will mew, and dog will have his day.”),复以此自嘲(I, ii,156-159:“……my uncle; /My father's brother, but no more like my father/Than I to Hercules.”),且以有身为苦,不乐在世(II, ii,232-234:“You cannot, sir, take from me anything that I will more/willingly part withal-except my life, except my life, except my/life.”),进而憎恶人类全体(i.d.,323-324:“……yet to me what is this quintessence of dust? /Man delights not me.”);凡此种种,皆其征也。
如斯厌世情结,或可以“出位之思”形容之。昔者钱钟书先生拈出此语[99],表彰超越之神思(transcendent imagination);究其源,则根诸《周易》,非仅思维方式之谓也。《坤》卦《文言》曰:“君子黄中通理,正位居体”[100],《鼎》卦《象》曰:“君子以正位凝命”[101],它如“当位”、“得位”之例,不一而足。对观《中庸》“致中和,天地位焉,万物育焉”[102]语,可知“位”者,各得性命之正之谓也;否则为“失位”、“不当位”,庄生所谓“使人喜怒失位,居处无常,思虑不自得,中道不成章,于是乎天下始乔诘卓鸷,而后有盗跖曾史之行”(《庄子·在宥第十一》[103])是也。性命不得其正,故怀出位之思焉,如“辟世辟地”、“乘桴浮海”(《论语·宪问》、《公冶长》)之类;诉诸歌咏,则有云游羁旅飘零之主题意象。“逝将去女,适彼乐土”(《诗·魏风·硕鼠》)之歌已肇其端;屈子忠信被谗,亦有“怀信侘傺,忽乎吾将行兮”(《涉江》)、“悲时俗之迫阨兮,愿轻举而远游”(《远游》[104])之叹。至于《古诗十九首》,更发“人生天地间,忽如远行客”、“人生寄一世,奄忽若飙尘”、“人生忽如寄”[105]之哀音,俨然以在世为出位矣。
老氏洞明此意,等观生死,而云“出生入死”(《老子》五十章[106]);漆园深达斯旨,以死为反真[107],乃曰“劳我以生,息我以死”(《庄子·大宗师》[108])。是故生也者,死之出位也;死也者,生之归止也[109]。人生离乱颠荡,则不免望死如归,而以有生为憾。《诗·小雅·苕之华》:“知我如此,不如无生”,《大雅·桑柔》:“我生不辰,逢天僤怒”,即其先声[110];哈姆雷特曰:“The time is out of joint.O cursed spite/That ever I was born to set it right! ”(I, v,215-216),又云:“it were better my mother had not borne me”(III, i,133-134),亦“不辰”、“无生”之叹也。
生命有肉体生命与精神生命之别,而古人尤重后者。孔子不云乎:“志士仁人,无求生以害仁,有杀身以成仁”(《论语·卫灵公》[111])。孟子由是倡言“舍生取义”,曰:
生亦我所欲也,义亦我所欲也;二者不可得兼,舍生而取义者也。生亦我所欲,所欲有甚于生者,故不为苟得也;死亦我所恶,所恶有甚于死者,故患有所不辟也。如使人之所欲莫甚于生,则凡可以得生者,何不用也?使人之所恶莫甚于死者,则凡可以辟患者,何不为也?由是则生而有不用也,由是则可以辟患而有不为也,是故所欲有甚于生者,所恶有甚于死者。非独贤者有是心也,人皆有之,贤者能勿丧耳。(《孟子·告子上》[112])
吕氏亦踵子华子之说,谓“辱莫大于不义,故不义,迫生也。而迫生非独不义也,故曰迫生不若死”(《吕氏春秋·仲春纪第二·贵生》[113])。汉儒韩婴则云“为夫义之不立,名之不显,则士耻之,故杀身以遂其行”(《韩诗外传》卷一第八章[114])。至于董仲舒,乃有“《春秋》贤死义”(《春秋繁露·玉英第四》[115])之论。由是观之,自杀或即“成仁”之一途,未可厚非也矣。宋儒究极性命之学,视“尽性”重于“全归”,如“志士仁人,无求生以害仁,有杀身以成仁”一句,程子以为“有杀人成仁者,只是成就一个是而已”,朱子注曰:
志士,有志之士。仁人,则成德之人也。理当死而求生,则于其心有不安矣,是害其心之德也。当死而死,则心安而德全矣。(《论语集注卷八·卫灵公第十五》[116])
“是”也者,“德”也,“理”也;“成是”义同“全德”,乃理之当然;既当理,则大患有所不辞。
设若中西哲人晤言一室,交相辩驳,必有可观者焉。西土哲人必云:惟理性有权自由立法,而得理之大全者,其惟神乎?凡人生皆不得全,故吾等无权自裁也明矣!康德因“责任”之“普遍命令”与“自在目的”立论,力陈自杀之非[117];黑格尔以死或由乎“自然原因”,或出诸“伦理理念”,故个人无权弃让生命[118]云云。中土哲人则曰:不然。大论近是,惜有一间未达。西方伦理之学,蔽于人而昧于天:康德之“理性”介乎本体、现象之间[119],然偏重现象(“命”)一边,以本体为不得已之假设,于是天人毕竟睽隔,人而不得其仁矣;黑格尔之“伦理理念”,殆同亚里士多德之“正理”,亦外乎人(“命”)而与人对,既断“性”、“命”为两撅,而“仁”不得其全也无论矣。然“仁”有二格,一曰“小体”,一曰“大体”;“从其大体为大人,从其小体为小人”(《孟子·告子上》[120])。“从其大体为大人”即是“明明德”(《大学》[121]),“明明德”即是“尽性”,“尽性”即是“践形”(《孟子·尽心上》[122]),“践形”即是“成仁”。成仁之人,恒以“大体”(“伦理理念”)裁制“小体”(发布“普遍命令”),“从心所欲不逾矩”(《论语·为政》[123])、“无可无不可”(《论语·微子》[124]),而况自杀乎!
于是佛陀合十赞叹:“是则善终,后世亦善!”[125]论辩至此,论题已非“人可否自杀”,而一变为内在而超越之我是否可能。如其然,则吾人有自决之权,否则“代大匠斫者,希有不伤其手矣”(《老子》七十四章[126]),终不免康德“僭越”之讥也。或问:“人皆可以为尧舜”,其然?岂其然乎?答曰:“可以为,未必能也;虽不能,无害可以为”(《荀子·性恶》[127]);“仁远乎哉?我欲仁,斯仁至矣”(《论语·述而》[128]),“积善成德,而神明自得,圣心备焉”(《荀子·劝学》[129]10);本体即工夫,工夫即本体,真积力久,则道德本体朗然呈现,迥非惚恍窈冥之虚设也。第“仁之难成久矣”(《礼记·表记》[130]11),贤如颜回者,“其心三月不违仁,其余则日月至焉而已”(《论语·雍也》[131]),况中人及以下之人哉!文中子曰:“杀身而成仁者,其中人之行欤”(《中说·事君第三》[132]),非人情也。故曰“慷慨杀身者易,从容就义者为难”(《二程遗书·明道先生语一》[133])云云。
然“义”义难知,自杀一念发动,或者理消欲长,则求仁而失仁矣。哈姆雷特所以踌躇沉吟者,无乃在诸?彼尝赞叹Horatio之为人,曰(III, ii,53-72):
Horatio, thou art e'en as just a man
As e'er my conversation coped withal
……
For thou hast been
As one, in suff'ring all, that suffers nothing;
A man that Fortune's buffets and rewards
Hast ta'en with equal thanks; and blest are those
Whose blood and judgment are so well commingled
That they are not a pipe for Fortune's finger
To sound what stop she please.
参考译文:
在我结交的人当中,
霍拉旭,你是最中正通达的,
……
你浑若无事地忍受一切苦楚,
对命运的苛待和优遇都一视同仁;
这样的人是有福的,
他的情感和理智调理得十分停当,
命运无法随意排遣他。
聆斯言,其志意昭然可知矣。所谓“仁者不忧”(《论语·子罕》[134]), Horatio自性贞定,故能八风不动,居易顺化如此。哈姆雷特则不然,既视六合为囹圄(II, ii,260263:“Ham.Denmark's a prison.Ros.Then is the world one./Ham.A goodly one; in which there are many confines, /wards, and dungeons, Denmark being one o'the worst.”),形无所遁(i.d.,270272:“O God, I could be bounded in a nutshell and/count myself a king of infinite space, were it not that I/have bad dreams.”),复以方寸作战场,忧心难寐(V, ii,56:“in my heart there was a kind of fighting/That would not let me sleep”),愤世嫉俗并自伤自怜(III, i,137138:“What should such fellows as I do/, crawling between earth and heaven? ”; V, i,195:“To what base uses we may return”; c.f.IV, v,4546:“we know what we are, but know/not what we may be.”)。真实心不可得(III, ii,7375:“Give me that man/That is not passion's slave, and I will wear him/In my heart's core, ay, in my heart of heart, /As I do thee.”),彷徨无所归着(III, i,64:“To be, or not to bethat is the question”),欲一死解脱而不能不生(II, ii,232234:“You cannot, sir, take from me anything that I will more/willingly part withalexcept my life, except my life, except my/life.”),忍死待命而已(V, ii,219221:“If it be now,‘tis not to come', if it be/not to come, it will be now; if it be not now, yet it will come:/the readiness is all”);弥留之际,欲有说而终于无言(V, ii,355359:“Had I but time…… O, I could tell you—/But let it be.”i.d.,384:“the rest is silence”)。悲哉!