- 中国泌尿外科疾病诊断治疗指南(2014版)
- 那彦群 孙光 叶章群 孙颖浩主编
- 45484字
- 2021-12-10 18:12:16
2 膀胱癌诊断治疗指南
前 言
膀胱癌是我国泌尿外科临床上最常见的肿瘤之一,是一种直接威胁患者生存的疾病。为了进一步规范膀胱癌诊断和治疗方法的选择,提高我国膀胱癌的诊断治疗水平,中华医学会泌尿外科学分会于2006年组织有关专家组成编写组,在CUA的直接领导与组织下,以国内外循证医学资料为依据,参考《吴阶平泌尿外科学》、 Campbell' s Urology以及欧洲泌尿外科学会(EAU)、美国泌尿外科学会(AUA)、美国国立综合癌症网络(NCCN)等相关膀胱癌诊断治疗指南,并结合国内临床实际,编写了2007年版中国《膀胱癌诊断治疗指南》,并经过2009年、2011年两次修订,为我国不同医疗条件下泌尿外科医师选择合理的膀胱癌诊断方法与治疗手段提供了有益的指导。《膀胱癌诊断治疗指南》在全国范围内的推广和应用,对提高我国膀胱癌的诊治水平起到了巨大的推动作用。
在指南的推广和学习过程中,我们发现了一些在编写和认识上的问题和错误需要修改,同时随着膀胱癌相关临床研究以及新的诊断和治疗方法不断进入临床应用,《膀胱癌诊断治疗指南》有了更新的需要。在中华医学会泌尿外科学分会的统一领导安排下,《膀胱癌诊断治疗指南》编写组通过广泛征求意见,仔细查阅相关文献,结合临床实践,经过反复讨论,完成了对《膀胱癌诊断治疗指南》的修订。新版指南按照临床诊断和治疗思维进行编写,增加了《膀胱癌的诊断和治疗策略》章节。编写组希望新版《膀胱癌诊断治疗指南》可以在膀胱癌临床诊断治疗的工作过程中为泌尿外科医生提供更好的帮助。
本版《膀胱癌诊断治疗指南》中共引用482条文献,其中由我国学者在国内或国际学术期刊中发表的论文和专著共53条。
一、膀胱癌的流行病学
(一)流行病学
世界范围内,膀胱癌发病率居恶性肿瘤的第十一位,在男性排名第七位,女性排在第十位之后 [1]。在欧美,膀胱癌发病率居男性恶性肿瘤的第四位,位列前列腺癌、肺癌和结肠癌之后,在女性恶性肿瘤亦排在十位以后 [2-3]。2008年世界发达地区膀胱癌年龄标准化发病率男性为16.6/10万,女性为3.6/10万,年龄标准化死亡率男性为4.6/10万,女性为1.0/10万 [1]。2005-2009年美国男性膀胱癌发病率为37.5 /10万,女性为9.3 /10万 [1]。美国癌症协会预测2013年美国膀胱癌新发病例数为72 570例(男54 610例,女17 960例),死亡病例数为15 210例(男10 820例,女4390例) [4]。
在我国,男性膀胱癌发病率位居全身恶性肿瘤的第七位,女性排在第十位以后 [5],发病率远低于西方国家。2009年全国肿瘤登记地区膀胱癌的发病率为6.61/10万,中国人口标准化率为3.03/10万 [5]。按性别统计,膀胱癌男、女性发病率分别为11.41/10万和3.51/10 万,男性是女性的3.3倍 [6]。城市地区膀胱癌发病率(8.55/10万)是中国农村人口膀胱癌发病率(3.55/10万)的2.4倍 [6]。无论男、女性,各年龄别发病率均为城市高于农村,城市是农村的2倍以上。2009年中国膀胱癌死亡率水平在全国肿瘤登记处的合计2.60/10万 [5]。按性别统计,男、女性膀胱癌的死亡率分别为3.75/10万和1.24/10万,男、女性之比为2.97∶1 [6]。城市地区膀胱癌死亡率(2.81/10万)明显高于农村地区(1.50/10万) [6]。
而对分期相同的膀胱癌,女性的预后比男性差 [7]。男性膀胱癌发病率高于女性不能完全解释为吸烟习惯和职业因素,性激素可能是导致这一结果的重要原因 [8-9]。目前有研究认为女性分娩对膀胱癌可能存在一定保护作用 [10]。膀胱癌可发生在任何年龄,甚至儿童也可能发生 [11]。膀胱癌的年龄发病率在45岁前处于较低水平,自45岁开始逐渐升高,农村地区发病高峰出现在80岁组。膀胱癌的年龄死亡率在60岁之前处于较低水平,自60岁组逐渐增高,85岁以上组死亡率最高 [5]。中国相对于其他国家而言,膀胱癌发病水平中等。但近10年间,不论是男性还是女性,也不论城市或农村,膀胱癌发病率均呈现逐年增长趋势,应引起重视 [6]。
种族对膀胱癌发病的影响迄今还没有确定。美国黑人膀胱癌发病危险率为美国白人的一半,但是其总体生存率却更差。美国白人发病率高于美国黑人,仅局限于非肌层浸润性肿瘤,而肌层浸润性膀胱癌的发病危险率却相似 [12]。
由于对低级别肿瘤认识不同,不同国家报道的膀胱癌发病率存在差异,使不同地域间的比较非常困难。不同人群的膀胱癌组织类型不同,在美国及大多数国家中,以移行细胞癌为主,占膀胱癌的90%以上,而非洲国家则以血吸虫感染所致的鳞状细胞癌为主,如在埃及,鳞状细胞癌约占膀胱癌的75% [13-14]。
(二)膀胱癌的危险因素
膀胱癌的发生是复杂、多因素、多步骤的病理变化过程,既有内在的遗传因素,又有外在的环境因素。较为明显的两大致病危险因素是吸烟和长期接触工业化学产品。吸烟是目前最为肯定的膀胱癌致病危险因素,约为30%~50%的膀胱癌由吸烟引起,吸烟可使膀胱癌的危险率增加2~4倍,其危险率与吸烟强度和时间成正比 [15,16]。另一重要的致病危险因素为长期接触工业化学产品,职业因素是最早获知的膀胱癌致病危险因素,约20%的膀胱癌是由职业因素引起的 [17],包括从事纺织、染料制造、橡胶化学、药物制剂和杀虫剂生产、油漆、皮革及铝和钢生产 [16-21]。柴油机废气累积也可增加膀胱癌的发生危险 [22]。有学者研究认为商业人士和行政人员、男性的电工和电子业工人有患膀胱癌的倾向;清洁工和助理职业对患膀胱癌有保护作用 [23]。
其他可能的致病因素还包括慢性感染(细菌、血吸虫及HPV感染等) [24-26]、应用化疗药物环磷酰胺(潜伏期6~13年) [27]、滥用含有非那西汀的止痛药(10年以上) [28]、近期及远期的盆腔放疗史 [29-30]、长期饮用砷含量高的水 [31]和氯消毒水 [32]、咖啡 [33]、人造甜味剂 [34]及染发 [35]。另外膀胱癌还可能和遗传有关 [36,37],有家族史者发生膀胱癌的危险性明显增加 [38,39],遗传性视网膜母细胞瘤患者的膀胱癌发生率也明显增高 [40]。有关酒精和膀胱癌的关系尚不明确,但有研究显示,饮酒者的膀胱癌发病率是不饮酒者2.53倍 [41]。大量摄入脂肪、胆固醇、油煎食物和红肉可能增加膀胱癌的发病危险 [42],一项新加坡的队列研究报道显示摄入较多的豆类食品可能增加膀胱癌的危险。有研究认为苏打水也是膀胱癌的饮料类危险因素 [43]。对于肌层浸润性膀胱癌,慢性尿路感染、残余尿及长期异物刺激(留置导尿管、结石 [44])与之关系密切,其主要见于鳞状细胞癌和腺癌。
正常膀胱细胞恶变开始于细胞DNA的改变。流行病学证据表明化学致癌物质是膀胱癌的致病因素,尤其是芳香胺类化合物,如2-萘胺、4-氨基联苯,广泛存在与烟草和各种化学工业中。烟草代谢产物经尿液排出体外,尿液中的致癌物质成分诱导膀胱上皮细胞恶变。目前大多数膀胱癌病因学研究集中在基因改变。癌基因是原癌基因的突变形式,原癌基因编码正常细胞生长所必须的生长因子和受体蛋白。原癌基因突变后变为癌基因,可使细胞无节制的分裂,导致膀胱癌复发和进展。与膀胱癌相关的癌基因包括HER-2、H-Ras、Bcl-2、FGFR3、C-myc、c-erbB-2、MDM2、CDC91L1等 [45-57]。膀胱癌发生的另外一个重要分子机制是编码调节细胞生长、DNA修复或凋亡的蛋白抑制基因失活,使DNA受损的细胞不发生凋亡,导致细胞生长失控。研究发现:含有p53、Rb、p21等抑癌基因的17、13、9号染色体的缺失或杂合性丢失与膀胱癌的发生发展密切相关 [58],而且,P53、Rb的突变或失活也与膀胱癌侵袭力 [59]及预后密切相关 [59,60]。近来,SYK、CAGE-1等基因的超甲基化被认为与膀胱癌的进展相关 [61]。此外,膀胱癌的发生还包括编码生长因子或其受体的正常基因的扩增或过表达,如EGEF过表达可增加膀胱癌的侵袭力 [62]及转移 [63,64]。
尿路上皮肿瘤具有时间和空间的多中心性,上尿路尿路上皮肿瘤的病史是膀胱尿路上皮癌的重要危险因素,研究表明,上尿路尿路上皮癌治疗后出现膀胱癌的风险累计达15%~50%,但目前尚无可靠的指标对膀胱癌的发病风险进行预测 [65]。
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二、膀胱癌的诊断
(一)膀胱癌的临床表现
血尿是膀胱癌最常见的症状,尤其是间歇性全程无痛血尿。血尿出现的时间及出血量和肿瘤恶性程度、分期、大小、数目、形态并不一致。血尿分为肉眼血尿或镜下血尿,据报道 [1,2,3],表现为肉眼血尿的膀胱癌发病率为17%~18.9%,镜下血尿的膀胱癌发病率为4.8%~6%。
膀胱癌患者亦有以尿频、尿急、尿痛,即膀胱刺激症和盆腔疼痛起病,此为膀胱癌另一类常见的症状,常与弥漫性原位癌或浸润性膀胱癌有关 [4],而Ta、T1期肿瘤常无此类症状 [5]。
其他症状还有输尿管梗阻所致腰胁部疼痛、下肢水肿、盆腔包块、尿潴留。有的患者就诊时即表现为体重减轻、肾功能不全、腹痛或骨痛,均为晚期症状。
体检触及盆腔包块是局部进展性肿瘤的证据 [4]。体检还包括经直肠、经阴道指检和麻醉下腹部双合诊等,不过,体格检查在Ta、T1期膀胱癌中的诊断价值有限 [5]。
(二)影像学检查
1.超声检查
随着高分辨率的超声探头的出现,超声检查膀胱和上尿路的影像水平不断提高,且不需要使用造影剂,超声作为一线检查方法在诊断泌尿系统疾病方面应用越来越广泛。超声检查可通过三种途径(经腹、经直肠、经尿道)进行。据报道,经腹部超声诊断膀胱癌的敏感性为63%~98%,特异性为99% [1]。可以同时检查肾脏、输尿管和腹部其他脏器。经直肠超声显示膀胱三角区、膀胱颈和前列腺较清楚。经尿道膀胱内超声检查需要麻醉,但影像清晰,分期准确性较高 [6]。国外报道经尿道膀胱内超声判定肿瘤分期并与病理分期相比,结果显示非肌层浸润性肿瘤准确率为94%~100%,肌层浸润性肿瘤准确率为63%~96.8% [6,7]。和其他影像学检查一样,超声检查无法诊断膀胱原位癌。
彩色多普勒超声检查可以显示肿瘤基底部血流信号,但膀胱肿瘤血流征象对术前肿瘤分期、分级帮助不大 [8]。
2.泌尿系统平片和静脉尿路造影(KUB+IVU)
泌尿系统平片及静脉尿路造影检查一直被视为膀胱癌患者的常规检查,以期发现并存的上尿路肿瘤。但初步诊断时此项检查的必要性目前受到置疑,因为其获得的重要信息量较少 [9,10]。一组793例膀胱肿瘤患者上尿路肿瘤发生率仅有1.1%(9例),而IVU只对6例做出诊断。但如果怀疑有T 1高级别肿瘤(该类肿瘤可致上尿路肿瘤发生率增加7%)、浸润性膀胱肿瘤或膀胱肿瘤并发肾盂、输尿管肿瘤以及有肾积水征象时仍有其应用价值[ 11]。
3.计算机断层成像(computed tomography,CT)
CT在诊断膀胱肿瘤和评估膀胱癌浸润范围(特别是显示膀胱外肿瘤浸润)方面有一定价值。如果膀胱镜发现肿瘤为广基无蒂、恶性度高、有肌层浸润的可能时可行CT检查 [4],以了解肿瘤的浸润范围。
近年来,多排(64~128排)螺旋CT分辨率大大提高,可以发现较小肿瘤(1~5mm) [12,13],但是原位癌仍不易被发现。不能很好的了解输尿管情况,不能准确区分非肌层浸润膀胱癌(Ta、T1)和T2期膀胱癌,不能区分肿大淋巴结是转移还是炎症,既往有肿瘤切除史者可因局部炎症反应所致的假象而造成分期过高 [14]。一组浸润性膀胱肿瘤患者行CT检查,诊断准确率只有54.9%,39%分期偏低,6.1%偏高 [14]。但患者若存在尿道狭窄或膀胱有活动性出血不能进行膀胱镜检查,CT仍有其优越性 [15]。
CTU(CT泌尿道成像)可替代传统IVU检查,可提供更多的检查信息,而缺点是更多的射线暴露量 [16]。
CT仿真膀胱镜不能完全替代膀胱镜,但有其应用价值,是膀胱镜禁忌患者的替代和补充方法 [15],但临床实用性还有待于进一步评估。施行CT仿真膀胱镜时,一种方法是将尿液引出,用气体充盈膀胱,扫描后将所获数据进行三维重建。另一种方法是经静脉或经膀胱注入造影剂进行对比 [17-19]。采用CT仿真膀胱镜检查准确率为88%,对>5mm的肿块能准确识别,并可以显示小至2mm的黏膜异常 [18]。
国内一项研究对膀胱癌患者行螺旋CT多平面重组(MPR)、三维(3D)重建和CT仿真膀胱镜(CTVC)成像,结果显示CT对肿瘤术前分期准确率为87.7%,轴位图像能较好显示浸润深度。MPR可更直观观察肿瘤起源、向周围侵犯情况及其与输尿管的关系。3D和CTVC能清楚显示肿瘤大体形态及其与输尿管开口的关系 [20]。
4.磁共振成像(magnetic resonance imaging,MRI)
MRI检查膀胱,T1加权像尿液呈极低信号,膀胱壁为低至中度信号,而膀胱周围脂肪为高信号。T1加权像有助于检查扩散至邻近脂肪的肿瘤、淋巴结转移以及骨转移情况,甚至可评价除前列腺以外的邻近器官受侵犯情况。T2加权像尿液呈高信号,正常逼尿肌呈低信号,而大多数膀胱肿瘤为中等信号。低信号的逼尿肌出现中断现象提示肌层浸润。因此,MRI有助于肿瘤分期。动态增强MRI在显示是否有尿路上皮癌存在以及肌层浸润深度方面准确性高于CT或非增强MRI [21]。由于膀胱肿瘤的平均表观弥散系数(ADC)较周围组织低,弥散加权成像(DWI)可能在评估肿瘤侵犯周围组织中有价值 [20]。
在分期方面,MRI优于CT,准确性分别为78~90%和67~85% [22,23]。钆增强MRI对膀胱癌分期准确率为62%,32%出现分期过高,但在鉴别肿瘤是否浸润肌层以及是否局限于膀胱方面准确率可达85%和82% [24]。应用增强剂行MRI检查也可发现正常大小淋巴结有无转移征象 [25]。例如,应用超顺磁性的氧化铁纳米颗粒作为增强剂可鉴别淋巴结有无转移:良性增大的淋巴结可吞噬铁剂,在T2加权像上信号强度降低,而淋巴结转移则无此征象 [21],有报道此检查对正常大小淋巴结是否存在转移进行术前判定,敏感性为58.3%,特异性为83.0%,准确率为76.4%。而且假阴性的淋巴结多为直径小于5mm者 [26]。对于术前预判淋巴结清扫范围有一定参考价值 [27,28]。
鉴于高能量MRI以及钆剂等造影剂应用时间较短,其安全性和优越性都需要进一步评价。对造影剂过敏的或肾功能不全的患者可行MRU(磁共振水成像),有助于了解上尿路情况。
应用MRI仿真膀胱镜诊断肿瘤效果较好(包括诊断较小肿瘤) [29,30]。膀胱癌患者行MRI膀胱造影,以术中或膀胱镜结果作为参考标准,仿真膀胱镜重建与多维重建的敏感性和特异性较高 [31]。和CT仿真膀胱镜一样,其在临床的实用性也有待进一步评估。
在检测有无骨转移时MRI敏感性远高于CT,甚至高于核素骨扫描 [32]。
5.骨扫描(bone scan)
主要用于检查有无骨转移病灶以明确肿瘤分期,在浸润性肿瘤患者出现骨痛或碱性磷酸酶增高时,或拟行根治性膀胱切除的患者怀疑有骨转移时 [4],可选择使用。
6.胸部检查
术前应常规作胸部X线检查,了解有无肺部转移。对肺部转移最敏感的检查方法是胸部CT [32]。
7.正电子发射-计算机断层扫描显像(positron emission tomography-computed tomography,PET-CT)
一般不作为常规诊断方法,因示踪剂FDG(氟脱氧葡萄糖)经肾脏排泌入膀胱显影会影响对已经摄取示踪剂肿瘤的判断。但也有报道采用排空膀胱并用50~100ml生理盐水冲洗后显像 [33]或者利尿后延迟显像的方法可以减少膀胱内示踪剂的影响。
目前已有使用新型示踪剂(如胆碱、蛋氨酸、乙酸)的报道, 11C-胆碱和 11C-乙酸均不经泌尿系统排泄,因此有效的避免了对膀胱肿瘤显像的干扰 [34]。有限的数据显示 11C-胆碱和 11C-乙酸可能是检测淋巴结转移的一种很有前途的示踪剂,但还需进一步证实 [34-39]。
对比研究以及荟萃分析显示,PET/CT诊断淋巴结转移的准确率优于CT和MRI [39-42]。因此PET/CT在术前淋巴结转移以及软组织肿块的鉴别尤其是术后随访方面有一定优势,可选择性使用。由于显像机制不同,在骨转移瘤诊断方面PET/CT尚不能取代MRI和核素骨扫描。
(三)尿细胞学及肿瘤标志物检查
1.尿细胞学
尿细胞学检查是膀胱癌诊断和术后随诊的主要方法之一。尿标本的采集一般是通过自然排尿,也可以通过膀胱冲洗,这样能得到更多的癌细胞,利于提高诊断率。尿标本应尽量采用新鲜尿液,但晨起第一次尿由于细胞溶解比率高而不适合进行尿细胞学的检查。尿细胞学阳性意味着泌尿道的任何部分,包括:肾盏、肾盂、输尿管、膀胱和尿道,存在尿路上皮癌的可能。根据文献报道 [43],尿细胞学检测膀胱癌的敏感性为13%~75%,特异性为85%~100%。敏感性与癌细胞恶性分级密切相关,分级低的膀胱癌敏感性较低,一方面是由于肿瘤细胞分化较好,其特征与正常细胞相似,不易鉴别,另一方面由于癌细胞之间黏结相对紧密,没有足够多的癌细胞脱落到尿中而被检测到,所以尿细胞学阴性并不能排除低级别尿路上皮癌的存在;相反,分级高的膀胱癌或原位癌,敏感性和特异性均较高 [44-46]。尿标本中癌细胞数量少、细胞的不典型或退行性变、泌尿系感染、结石、膀胱灌注治疗和检查者的技术差异等因素会影响尿细胞学检查结果 [47,48]。
流式细胞分析技术也可应用于尿细胞学检查,且相对简便客观,其原理是应用DNA特异性的荧光剂将尿液中脱落细胞染色质染色,应用计算机自动测量染色体数量。由于肿瘤细胞的增殖分裂旺盛,呈现多倍体的情况。一般来说,二倍体代表低度恶性肿瘤,三到四倍体为高度恶性肿瘤,而四倍体及以上则代表恶性程度更高,预后更差 [49-51]。和细胞病理学类似,尿液中脱落肿瘤细胞数量也影响流式细胞分析结果。因此诊断膀胱癌的敏感性和特异性也和肿瘤分化程度和分期相关 [52]。
尿液中白细胞也会被染色而干扰结果,利用角蛋白或6氨基乙酰乙酸等标记肿瘤细胞的特异性荧光染色剂有助于减少干扰,提高准确率 [53,54]。但流式细胞分析仍不能在临床上替代细胞病理学。
2.尿膀胱癌标志物
为了提高无创检测膀胱癌的水平,尿膀胱癌标志物的研究受到了很大的关注,美国FDA已经批准将BTAstat、BTAtrak、NMP22、FDP、ImmunoCyt和尿荧光原位杂交技术(Fluorescence in situ hybridization,FISH)用于膀胱癌的检测。多项研究显示FISH技术具有较高的敏感性和特异性 [55-58]。目前已有多种商品化的FISH试剂盒用于临床。但对于有膀胱炎症、结石、放疗等病史者的尿液标本中,反应性脱落细胞可能造成FISH结果的特异性降低 [59]。国内有学者研究显示尿液纤维连接蛋白(Fibronectin)有助于鉴别肌层浸润性膀胱癌,联合尿液纤维连接蛋白与尿肌酐比值可用于预测术后肿瘤的残留 [60,61]。
其他还有许多的标志物,如:端粒酶、存活素(survivin)、微卫星分析、CYFRA21-1和LewisX等,在检测膀胱癌的临床研究中显示了较高的敏感性和特异性 [43]。虽然大部分尿液膀胱癌标记物显示出了较高的敏感性,但是其特异性却普遍低于尿细胞学检查。
近年来也有检测尿液RNA和DNA标志物的报道,其中一项包括485例肉眼血尿患者入组的多中心研究显示,RNA标志物μRNA和Cxbladder检出膀胱癌的敏感性高于细胞病理学和NMP22。尤其对于高级别或者T1分期及以上的膀胱癌的敏感性和特异性更高 [62]。到目前为止,仍然没有一种理想的标志物能够取代膀胱镜和尿细胞学检查而对膀胱癌的诊断、治疗、术后随诊和预后等方面做出足够的判断 [43,63,64]。相信随着新技术的出现,尿膀胱癌标志物有较好的应用前景 [64]。
(四)内镜检查
1.膀胱镜检查和活检
膀胱镜检查和活检是诊断膀胱癌最可靠的方法。通过膀胱镜检查可以明确膀胱肿瘤的数目、大小、形态(乳头状的或广基的)、部位以及周围膀胱黏膜的异常情况,同时可以对肿瘤和可疑病变进行活检以明确病理诊断。如有条件,建议使用软性膀胱镜检查,与硬性膀胱镜相比,该方法具有损伤小、视野无盲区、相对舒适等优点。孙颖浩等采用“超声膀胱软镜”能准确显示肿瘤浸润膀胱壁的深度,为膀胱癌的术前分期诊断提供新的模式 [65,66]。
膀胱肿瘤可以是多灶性的,非肌层浸润性膀胱癌可以伴有原位癌或发育不良,表现为类似炎症的淡红色绒毛样的黏膜改变,也可以表现为完全正常膀胱黏膜。
不建议对非肌层浸润性膀胱癌的正常膀胱黏膜进行常规的随机活检或选择性活检,因为发现原位癌的可能性很低(小于2%),特别是对于低危的膀胱癌 [67]。但当尿脱落细胞学检查阳性或膀胱黏膜表现异常时,建议行选择性活检(selected biopsy),以明确诊断和了解肿瘤范围。在尿细胞学检查阳性而膀胱黏膜表现为正常、怀疑有原位癌存在时,应考虑行随机活检 [68]。如果膀胱肿瘤为原位癌、多发性癌或者肿瘤位于膀胱三角区或颈部时,并发前列腺部尿道癌的危险性增加,建议行前列腺部尿道活检,此外,尿细胞学阳性或前列腺部尿道黏膜表现异常时,也应行该部位的活检 [69,70]。
(1)荧光膀胱镜(fluorescence cystoscopy):荧光膀胱镜检查是通过向膀胱内灌注光敏剂,如:5-氨基酮戊酸(5-ALA)、Hexaminolaevulinate(HAL)或Hypericin,产生的荧光物质能高选择的积累在新生的膀胱黏膜组织中,在激光激发下病灶部位显示为红色荧光,与正常膀胱黏膜的蓝色荧光形成鲜明对比,能够发现普通膀胱镜难以发现的小肿瘤或原位癌,检出率可以提高14%~25% [71,72]。近年来研究发现,吡柔比星也可以作为一种荧光染色剂,在荧光下可提高对膀胱内微小病变和扁平病变尤其是原位癌的检出率 [73]。在怀疑有膀胱原位癌或尿细胞学检查阳性而普通膀胱镜检查正常时,应该考虑使用荧光膀胱镜做进一步检查 [74]。但在荧光膀胱镜引导下行膀胱肿瘤电切术,能否降低肿瘤的术后复发率仍未有定论 [75-78]。对肿瘤的进展率和患者生存率的影响还有待于做进一步的临床观察 [79]。荧光膀胱镜的缺点是诊断膀胱癌的特异性相对不高,炎症、近期膀胱肿瘤电切术和膀胱灌注治疗会导致假阳性结果 [79,80]。
(2)窄谱光成像(NBI)膀胱镜:窄谱光成像(narrow band imaging,NBI)的原理是通过滤光器过滤掉普通内镜氙灯光源所发出红、蓝、绿中的宽带光谱,选择415nm、540nm的窄带光。其显示黏膜表面微细结构和黏膜下血管较传统的白光模式内镜清楚,立体感更强,有助于微小病灶的早期发现与诊断。文献报道白光和NBI膀胱镜对膀胱肿瘤诊断的敏感度、特异度和准确率分别为77.7%和92.9%、82.7%和73.5%、79.3%和86.7%,两者对膀胱原位癌诊断的敏感度、特异度和准确率分别 为68.3%和87.8%、82.9%和77.1%、75%和82.9%。当同时使用两者进行检查时,仅能通过NBI发现而不能通过白光发现的肿瘤占17.1%,反之仅占1.9% [81]。有42%尿细胞学阳性而白光膀胱镜检阴性患者在接受NBI膀胱镜检查时发现膀胱肿瘤 [82]。
在NBI指示下进行膀胱肿瘤电切手术,与白光下电切术相比,能够降低至少10%的术后1年复发率 [83]。
2.诊断性经尿道电切术(transurethral rese-ction,TUR)
如果影像学检查发现膀胱内有肿瘤样病变,可以省略膀胱镜检查,直接行诊断性TUR,这样可以达到两个目的,一是切除肿瘤,二是明确肿瘤的病理诊断和分级、分期,为进一步治疗以及判断预后提供依据 [84]。
TUR方法:如果肿瘤较小(小于1cm),可以将肿瘤与其基底的部分膀胱壁一起切除送病理检查;如果肿瘤较大,则行分步骤切除,先将肿瘤的突起部分切除,然后切除肿瘤的基底部分,基底部分应包含膀胱壁肌层,最后切除肿瘤的周边区域,将这三部分标本分别送病理检查 [84,85]。TUR时尽量避免烧灼,以减少对标本组织的破坏 [86]。
(五)膀胱癌的组织病理学
1.膀胱癌的组织学类型
被覆尿路的上皮统称为尿路上皮(urothelium)或移行细胞(transitional cell),本指南中主要采用尿路上皮的概念。
膀胱癌包括尿路上皮(移行细胞)癌、鳞状细胞癌和腺细胞癌,其次还有较少见的小细胞癌、混合型癌、癌肉瘤及转移性癌等。其中,膀胱尿路上皮癌最为常见,占膀胱癌的90%以上 [87,88];膀胱鳞状细胞癌比较少见,约占膀胱癌的3%~7%。膀胱腺癌更为少见,占膀胱癌的比例<2% [87-91],膀胱腺癌是膀胱外翻患者最常见的癌 [92,93]。
2.膀胱癌的组织学分级
膀胱癌的分级与膀胱癌的复发和侵袭行为密切相关。膀胱肿瘤的恶性程度以分级(Grade)表示。关于膀胱癌的分级,目前普遍采用WHO分级法(WHO 1973 [94],WHO 2004 [95])。
(1)WHO1973分级法:
1973年的膀胱癌组织学分级法根据癌细胞的分化程度分为高分化、中分化和低分化3级,分别用Grade 1、2、3或GradeⅠ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ表示(表2-1)。
表2-1 WHO 1973膀胱尿路上皮癌恶性程度分级系统
(2)WHO2004分级法:
1998年WHO和国际泌尿病理协会(International Society of Urological Pathology,ISUP)提出了非浸润性尿路上皮(移行细胞)癌新分类法 [96],2004年WHO正式公布了这一新的分级法 [95]。此分级法将尿路上皮肿瘤分为低度恶性潜能尿路上皮乳头状肿瘤(papillary urothelial neoplasms of low malignant potential,PUNLMP)、低分级和高分级尿路上皮癌(表2-2)(www.pathology.jhu.edu/bladder上可以查到各级膀胱肿瘤的详细描述)。低度恶性潜能尿路上皮乳头状肿瘤的定义为尿路上皮乳头状肿瘤,其细胞形态正常,无恶性肿瘤的细胞学特征。虽然,此种尿路上皮肿瘤进展的风险很小,但不完全属于良性病变,仍有复发的可能。WHO 1973和WHO 2004分级法是两个不同的分类系统,二者之间不能逐一对应(表2-3)。新的WHO2004分级法是否优于WHO 1973分级法还需要更多的临床试验验证 [97]。目前存在同时使用WHO 1973,WHO 2004分级标准的情况,为了统一膀胱肿瘤的分级标准,更好地反映肿瘤的危险倾向,建议使用WHO 2004分级法。
表2-2 WHO 2004膀胱尿路上皮癌恶性程度分级系统
3.膀胱癌的分期
膀胱癌的分期指肿瘤浸润深度及转移情况,是判断膀胱肿瘤预后的最有价值的指标之一。目前普遍采用国际抗癌联盟(Union Internationale Contre le Cancer,UICC)的2009年第7版TNM分期法 [98](表2-4)。
膀胱癌可分为非肌层浸润性膀胱癌(Tis、T a、T 1)和肌层浸润性膀胱癌(T 2以上)。原位癌(Tis)虽然也属于非肌层浸润性膀胱癌,但一般分化差,向肌层浸润性进展的几率较高,属于高度恶性的肿瘤 [99]。因此,应将原位癌与Ta、T 1期膀胱癌加以区别。
表2-3 WHO 2004和WHO1973分级法的对比 [100]
表2-4 膀胱癌 2009 TNM 分期
推荐意见
1.膀胱肿瘤患者需询问病史,做体格检查、超声、IVU或泌尿系CT/MRI检查及胸部X线检查。
2.对所有怀疑膀胱癌的患者应行膀胱镜检查及病理活检或诊断性TUR及病理检查。
3.对怀疑原位癌、尿脱落细胞阳性而无明确黏膜异常者应考虑随机活检,可选择行荧光膀胱镜或NBI膀胱镜检查。
4.对肌层浸润性膀胱癌疑有骨转移者,可选择骨扫描检查。
5.尿膀胱癌标志物是一种无创检查方法,对可疑尿路上皮肿瘤或中、高危术后患者,可选择使用。
6.推荐采用膀胱癌2009 TNM分期系统(UICC)进行病理学分期。为了统一标准,方便学术交流,建议使用WHO 2004分级法进行组织学分级。
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三、膀胱癌的诊断和治疗策略
(一)膀胱癌的诊断策略
(二)非肌层浸润性膀胱癌的治疗
(三)肌层浸润性膀胱癌的治疗
四、非肌层浸润性膀胱癌的治疗及随访
(一)非肌层浸润性膀胱癌的危险度分级
非肌层浸润性膀胱癌(non muscle-invasive bladder cancer,NMIBC),既往称为表浅性膀胱癌(superficial bladder cancer),占初 发 膀胱肿 瘤 的70%,其中Ta占70%、T1占20%、Tis占10% [1]。Ta和T1分期虽然都属于非肌层浸润性膀胱癌,但两者的生物学特性有显著不同,由于固有层内血管和淋巴管丰富,故T 1期肿瘤较容易发生扩散 [2]。
影响NMIBC复发和进展的危险因素有:肿瘤的数量、大小、分期、分级,复发的频率以及是否存在原位癌(carcinoma in situ,CIS)。与复发相关的主要危险因素为肿瘤的数量(≥8个)和复发的频率(>1次/年),与进展相关的主要危险因素为肿瘤的分期(T1)、分级(G3或高级别尿路上皮癌)和存在CIS [3-7]。根据复发风险及预后的不同,NMIBC可分为以下三组:
(二)手术治疗
1.经尿道膀胱肿瘤切除术
经尿道膀胱肿瘤切除术(trasnurethral resection of bladder tumor,TURBT)既是非肌层浸润性膀胱癌的重要诊断方法,同时也是主要的治疗手段。膀胱肿瘤的确切病理分级、分期都需要根据首次TURBT后的病理结果确定 [8,9]。经尿道膀胱肿瘤切除术有两个目的:一是切除肉眼可见的全部肿瘤,二是切除组织进行病理分级和分期。TURBT术应将肿瘤完全切除直至露出正常的膀胱壁肌层。肿瘤切除后,建议进行基底部组织活检,便于病理分期和下一步治疗方案的确定。
对于怀疑有多发性肿瘤、原位癌或高级别肿瘤的患者,如尿细胞学阳性或膀胱活检为高级别肿瘤,推荐采用荧光引导下的电切。NBI能更好的对比正常膀胱黏膜与富含血管的肿瘤组织,初步研究发现在NBI引导下电切能提高肿瘤的发现率 [10],这还需大规模多中心研究来证实。
非肌层浸润性膀胱癌电切术后,相当多的肿瘤复发是由于肿瘤残余造成的 [11,12],特别是中、高分级的T 1期膀胱癌,据文献报道首次电切术后肿瘤残余率可以达到33.8%~36% [13,14],此外,由于电切技术和送检肿瘤标本质量问题,首次电切还可以造成一部分肿瘤的病理分期偏差 [15,16]。一些学者建议 [15-18],对非肌层浸润性膀胱癌在首次电切术后短期内进行二次TUR,特别是对那些高风险的T 1期膀胱癌,可以降低术后肿瘤复发率和进展率,并且可以获得更准确的肿瘤病理分期。文献报道 [14],二次TUR可以使T 1期膀胱癌患者术后的肿瘤复发率由63.24%降到25.68%,肿瘤进展率由11.76%降到4.05%。
符合以下情况者建议行二次TUR:
1)首次TURBT不充分;
2)首次电切标本中没有肌层组织,TaG1(低级别)肿瘤和单纯原位癌除外;
3)T1期肿瘤;
4)G3(高级别)肿瘤,单纯原位癌除外。
关于二次电切的时间和方案暂无一致的观点,大多数推荐术后2~6周行二次电切 [19,20],手术中对原肿瘤部位需要再次切除。
2.经尿道激光手术
激光手术可以凝固,也可以汽化,其疗效及复发率与经尿道手术相近 [21,22]。但术前需进行肿瘤活检以便进行病理诊断。2μm连续激光的能量被组织中的水分完全吸收而达到汽化切割作用,可用于准确的汽化切割膀胱壁各层,不影响肿瘤病理分期,已有报道用于治疗非肌层浸润性膀胱癌 [23-25]。已经应用于临床的激光还包括钬激光 [26-28],国内也有利用绿激光治疗非肌层浸润性膀胱癌的报道 [29,30]。
3.其他治疗选择
(1)光动力学治疗:
光动力学治疗(photodynamic therapy,PDT)是利用膀胱镜将激光与光敏剂相结合的治疗方法。肿瘤细胞摄取光敏剂后,在激光作用下产生单态氧,使肿瘤细胞变性坏死。膀胱原位癌、控制膀胱肿瘤出血、肿瘤多次复发、不能耐受手术治疗等情况可以选择此疗法 [31,32]。TURBT术后复发和BCG灌注治疗失败患者也可选用光动力学治疗。
临床常用膀胱内灌注5-氨基乙酰丙酸(5-aminolevulinic acid,5-ALA) [33]、氨基酮戊酸己酯(hexaminolevulinate,HAL) [34],疗效有待多中心大样本的临床结果证实。
(2)膀胱部分切除术:
由于绝大部分非肌层浸润性膀胱肿瘤可通过TURBT切除,而且膀胱部分切除术后,肿瘤复发率高和高级别肿瘤进展率高 [35,36],因此,除了极少数患者如孤立的、低级别的膀胱憩室内肿瘤外,不宜选择膀胱部分切除术。
(3)根治性膀胱切除术:
对于BCG治疗失败的患者,强烈推荐行根治性膀胱切除术。
有专家认为,以下一些高危情况可考虑行即刻根治性膀胱切除术 [37-40]:多发复发高级别肿瘤;高级别T1期肿瘤;高级别肿瘤合并有CIS。有研究表明延期手术降低疾病特异性生存率 [41]。诊断为高危NMIBC后立即行根治性膀胱切除术的患者,其5年无病生存率超过80% [42-45]。对于上述高危患者选择即刻根治性膀胱切除还是TURBT+BCG膀胱灌注,应将两种方案的益处和弊端告知患者,与患者沟通讨论后决定。
具体见第五章肌层浸润性膀胱癌的治疗及随访。
(三)术后辅助治疗
非肌层浸润性膀胱癌TURBT术后有很高的术后复发率,小部分患者甚至会进展为肌层浸润性膀胱癌。原位癌单纯TURBT手术并不能解决术后高复发率和疾病进展的问题 [46]。因此,推荐所有非肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者进行术后辅助性膀胱灌注治疗,包括膀胱灌注化疗和膀胱灌注免疫治疗。
1.膀胱灌注化疗
(1)灌注时机及方案
1)术后即刻膀胱灌注化疗:TURBT术后即刻膀胱灌注化疗能显著降低非肌层浸润性膀胱癌的复发率,其原理是术后即刻灌注化疗能够杀灭术中播散的肿瘤细胞和创面残留的肿瘤细胞 [47-48],为了预防肿瘤细胞种植,应在术后24小时内完成膀胱灌注化疗。推荐术后尽早灌注化疗,如能在手术室或复苏室内完成效果最佳 [49]。所有非肌层浸润性膀胱癌均推荐行术后即刻膀胱灌注化疗,但当存在TURBT术中膀胱穿孔或术后严重肉眼血尿时,不建议使用 [50]。低危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌术后即刻灌注化疗后,复发几率很低,不推荐维持膀胱灌注化疗 [47];中危、高危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌则需要后续膀胱灌注化疗或免疫治疗。
2)术后早期和维持膀胱灌注化疗:中危和高危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌在术后即刻膀胱灌注化疗后,均应当接受后续治疗。维持膀胱灌注化疗能够降低肿瘤的复发率,但不能预防肿瘤进展 [51]。因此,中危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌推荐术后维持膀胱灌注化疗,也可选择BCG灌注免疫治疗;高危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌建议术后BCG灌注免疫治疗,也可选择术后维持膀胱灌注化疗。目前,没有证据表明任何一种术后维持灌注化疗方案明显优于其他,但均不推荐1年以上的膀胱灌注化疗 [52]。建议灌注方案应包括:早期灌注(诱导灌注):术后4~8周,每周1次膀胱灌注;之后维持灌注:每月1次,维持6~12个月。
(2)灌注药物的选择:
常用灌注化疗药物包括吡柔比星(常用剂量为每次30~50mg)、表柔比星(常用剂量为每次50~80mg)、多柔比星(常用剂量为每次30~50mg)、羟喜树碱(常用剂量为每次10~20mg)、丝裂霉素(常用剂量为每次20~60mg)。吉西他滨也可用于膀胱灌注化疗 [53]。膀胱灌注化疗的效果与尿液pH值、化疗药物的浓度相关,其中化疗药物浓度比药物剂量更为重要 [54]。化疗药物应通过导尿管注入膀胱,并保留0.5~2小时(保留时间请参照具体药物说明书)。膀胱灌注前应避免大量饮水,灌注时根据药物说明选择合适的溶剂。膀胱灌注化疗的副作用主要是化学性膀胱炎和血尿,严重程度与灌注剂量和频率相关,多数副作用在停止灌注后可自行改善。
2.免疫治疗
通过膀胱内灌注免疫制剂,诱导机体局部免疫反应,使膀胱壁内和尿液中细胞因子表达增加、粒细胞和单核细胞聚集,以预防膀胱肿瘤复发、控制肿瘤进展。主要包括卡介苗(BCG)膀胱灌注治疗,其它还包括干扰素、匙孔虫戚血蓝蛋白等 [55,56]。初步临床试验显示A群链球菌制剂对预防膀胱癌复发也有一定疗效 [57,58],目前正在进行多中心临床试验。
卡介苗(Bacillus Calmette-Guérin,BCG):BCG膀胱灌注免疫治疗的绝对适应证包括高危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌和膀胱原位癌,相对适应证是中危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌,而低危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌不推荐BCG灌注治疗。BCG通过诱发局部免疫反应达到治疗效果,确切作用机制尚不清楚,细胞介导的细胞毒效应可能起重要作用 [59]。与单纯TUR手术或TUR联合术后膀胱灌注化疗相比,TUR联合术后BCG膀胱灌注免疫治疗能预防非肌层浸润性膀胱癌术后复发,并能明显降低中危、高危肿瘤进展的风险 [60-63]。因此,对于高危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌,推荐BCG膀胱灌注免疫治疗。中危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌术后5年的复发率为42%~65%,发生肿瘤进展的概率为5%~8% [64,65]。对中危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌,可选择膀胱灌注化疗或免疫治疗。通常情况下推荐使用膀胱灌注化疗,部分患者可选择BCG灌注治疗。BCG膀胱灌注并不改变低危膀胱癌的疾病进程,并且副作用发生率较高,不推荐使用BCG膀胱灌注免疫治疗。
BCG膀胱灌注免疫治疗的最佳疗程目前尚无定论。由于术后膀胱有开放创面,即刻灌注易引起严重的副作用,因此禁止术后即刻灌注,通常在术后2周时开始。BCG治疗一般采用6周灌注诱导免疫应答,再加3周的灌注强化以维持良好的免疫反应。BCG需要维持灌注1年以上方能得到临床获益,肿瘤进展的概率降低37% [66-69],维持灌注治疗的方案很多,从18周10次灌注到3年27次灌注不等 [70],但没有证据表明任何一种方案明显优于其他 [69,71]。
BCG膀胱灌注免疫治疗的最佳剂量目前同样尚无定论,BCG灌注治疗的标准剂量为81~150mg,治疗高危非肌层浸润性膀胱尿路上皮癌时,推荐采用标准剂量。多发膀胱肿瘤时,标准剂量BCG治疗效果更好。对于中危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌,建议使用1/3标准剂量,其疗效与全剂量相同,副作用明显减少,但严重的全身毒性反应发生率并没有明显降低 [72,73]。使用1/6标准剂量影响治疗效果,不推荐应用 [74]。
BCG膀胱灌注治疗的副作用主要包括膀胱刺激症状、血尿和全身流感样症状,少见的副作用包括结核性败血症、前列腺炎、附睾睾丸炎、肝炎等。全身BCG反应和过敏反应罕见 [68]。膀胱有开放创面或有明显肉眼血尿时,不得进行BCG灌注。有证据表明联合灌注纤溶酶原抑制剂、干扰素能减少BCG用量、减少副作用而不影响治疗效果 [55,75,76]。
(四)膀胱原位癌的治疗
膀胱原位癌(CIS)虽然属于非肌层浸润性膀胱癌,但通常分化差,属于高度恶性肿瘤,发生肌层浸润的概率明显高于Ta、T1期膀胱癌 [77]。CIS较少单独存在,常与T a、T 1期膀胱癌或肌层浸润性膀胱癌同时存在,并且是预后不佳(复发、进展)的危险因素 [64,78]。CIS的治疗方案包括TURBT术+术后辅助膀胱灌注治疗和根治性膀胱切除术。BCG膀胱灌注免疫治疗的完全缓解率达到72%~93%,明显高于膀胱灌注化疗(48%),并明显降低疾病复发率和进展概率 [79-81],目前没有证据表明BCG免疫治疗联合灌注化疗效果更好,因此术后辅助治疗推荐BCG膀胱灌注免疫治疗 [82]。BCG治疗期间,每3~4个月需定期复查膀胱镜和尿脱落细胞学检查,若治疗9个月时未达到完全缓解、或发生肿瘤复发、进展,推荐行根治性膀胱切除术。当CIS合并有肌层浸润性膀胱癌时,治疗方案参照肌层浸润性膀胱癌,推荐行根治性膀胱切除术 [81]。约63%的患者CIS病变会累及膀胱外(前列腺部尿道和上尿路),其预后较单纯膀胱CIS差。当CIS累及前列腺部尿道上皮时,可选择前列腺电切+BCG灌注治疗;CIS累及上尿路的治疗方案详见肾盂输尿管肿瘤的治疗。
(五)随访
在非肌层浸润性膀胱癌的随访中,膀胱镜检查目前仍然是金标准,检查过程中一旦发现异常均应该行活检及病理检查。超声学、尿脱落细胞学、IVU等检查也有一定的价值,但均不能完全代替膀胱镜检查的地位和作用 [83-86]。
推荐所有非肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者在术后3个月时进行第一次膀胱镜检查,但如果存在手术切除不完全、肿瘤发展迅速可适当提前,以后的随访根据膀胱癌复发和进展的危险程度决定。高危患者推荐前2年每3个月行一次膀胱镜检查,第3年开始每6个月一次,第5年开始每年1次直到终身;低危患者如第一次膀胱镜检查阴性,建议术后1年时行第二次膀胱镜检查,之后每年1次直到第5年;中危患者随访方案介于两者之间,依据患者个体预后因素和一般情况决定。随访过程中,一旦出现复发,治疗后的随访方案按上述方案重新开始。
推荐意见
1.TURBT术是非肌层浸润性膀胱尿路上皮癌的主要治疗手段。
2.对低危非肌层浸润性膀胱尿路上皮癌,术后可只进行单剂即刻膀胱灌注化疗。
3.对中、高危非肌层浸润性膀胱尿路上皮癌,术后单剂即刻膀胱灌注化疗后,应进行后续化疗药物或BCG维持灌注治疗。
4.对高危非肌层浸润性膀胱尿路上皮癌,首选BCG膀胱灌注治疗(至少维持1年)。
5.膀胱灌注治疗无效的非肌层浸润性膀胱尿路上皮癌(如肿瘤进展、肿瘤多次复发、CIS和T1G3(高级别)肿瘤经TURBT及膀胱灌注治疗无效等),建议行根治性膀胱切除术。
6.如设备条件允许,术中可采用荧光膀胱镜或NBI膀胱镜,以提高CIS或微小病灶诊断率。
7.首次电切肿瘤切除不完全、标本内无肌层、高级别肿瘤、T 1期肿瘤,建议术后2~6周再次行TURBT。
8.经尿道激光手术可作为NMIBC的一种治疗选择。
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五、肌层浸润性膀胱癌的治疗及随访
(一)根治性膀胱切除术
根治性膀胱切除术同时行盆腔淋巴结清扫术,是肌层浸润性膀胱癌的标准治疗,是提高浸润性膀胱癌患者生存率、避免局部复发和远处转移的有效治疗方法 [1-5]。该手术需要根据肿瘤的病理类型、分期、分级、肿瘤发生部位、有无累及邻近器官等情况,结合患者的全身状况进行选择。
1.根治性膀胱切除术的指征
根治性膀胱切除术的基本手术指征为:T2-T4a,N0-X,M0浸润性膀胱癌 [4];高危非肌层浸润性膀胱癌T1G3(高级别)肿瘤;BCG治疗无效的Tis;反复复发的非肌层浸润性膀胱癌;TUR和膀胱灌注治疗无法控制的广泛乳头状病变及膀胱非尿路上皮癌等。挽救性膀胱切除术的指征包括:非手术治疗无效、保留膀胱治疗后肿瘤复发 [6,7]。除有严重合并症(心、肺、肝、脑、肾等疾病)不能耐受手术者外,有以上指征者,推荐根治性膀胱切除术。
2.根治性膀胱切除术的手术范围
经典的根治性膀胱切除术的手术范围包括:膀胱及周围脂肪组织、输尿管远端,并行盆腔淋巴结清扫术;男性应包括前列腺、精囊,女性应包括子宫、部分阴道前壁、附件 [7-9]。如果肿瘤侵犯尿道、女性膀胱颈部或男性前列腺部,或术中冰冻发现切缘阳性,则需行全尿道切除 [10]。对于性功能要求高的年龄较轻男性患者,保留神经血管束可以使部分患者保留性功能。对于选择原位新膀胱作为尿流改道方式的患者,尽可能保留支配尿道的自主神经可以改善术后尿控 [11,12]。女性如肿瘤没有侵犯阴道前壁可尽量保留,绝经期前的女性如卵巢未受侵犯可以保留 [13,14]。这些保留功能的术式在技术成熟的条件下可在器官局限性肿瘤患者中应用。术中应以保持肿瘤根治效果为前提,术后需接受严密随访,患者的长期转归有待进一步证实 [15-17]。
淋巴结清扫不仅是一种治疗手段,而且为预后判断提供重要的信息 [3]。国外研究表明,肌层浸润性膀胱癌出现淋巴转移风险达24%以上 [18,19],而且与肿瘤浸润深度相关(pT2a 9%~18%、pT2b 22%~41%、pT3 41%~50%、pT4 41%~63%) [20]。因此盆腔淋巴结清扫是根治性膀胱切除术的重要组成部分。目前主要淋巴结清扫术式有标准淋巴结清扫和扩大淋巴结清扫两种。标准淋巴结清扫的范围是髂总血管分叉处(近端),生殖股神经(外侧),旋髂静脉和Cloquet淋巴结(远端),髂内血管(后侧),包括闭孔、两侧坐骨前和骶骨前淋巴结。扩大淋巴结清扫在标准淋巴结清扫的基础上向上扩展至主动脉分叉处,甚至可以扩展至肠系膜下动脉水平,包括髂总血管、腹主动脉远端及下腔静脉周围淋巴脂肪组织 [21];淋巴结清扫术应与根治性膀胱切除术同期进行,应清除双侧清扫范围内的所有淋巴脂肪组织 [22]。近年的研究发现92%的膀胱淋巴引流位于输尿管跨越髂血管平面以下 [23],因此对于大部分患者,推荐行标准盆腔淋巴清扫。对于术前或术中怀疑淋巴结转移者应考虑扩大淋巴结清扫。有学者认为扩大淋巴结清扫对患者有益,可以提高病理分期的准确性以及提高术后的5年生存率 [24]。淋巴结清扫范围可根据肿瘤范围、病理类型、浸润深度和患者情况决定。
3.根治性膀胱切除术的手术方式
目前根治性膀胱切除术的方式可以分为开放手术和腹腔镜手术两种,腹腔镜手术包括常规腹腔镜手术和机器人辅助腹腔镜手术。目前腹腔镜手术的可行性、围手术期治疗效果已经得到证实。与开放手术相比,腹腔镜手术对术者的操作技巧要求较高、手术时间较长,总体并发症、术后切缘阳性率以及淋巴结清扫效果等结果与开放手术相近,但具有失血量少、术后疼痛较轻、恢复较快的特点 [25-29]。机器人辅助腹腔镜根治性膀胱切除术可以使手术更精细和迅速 [30-33]。单孔腹腔镜手术的可行性已得到证实,但手术难度极大,手术耗时长,手术器械及技术上还有待于进一步完善 [34-37]。
4.根治性膀胱切除术的并发症和生存率
根治性膀胱切除术属于高风险的手术,围手术期并发症可达28%~64%,围手术期的死亡率为2.5%~2.7%,主要死亡原因有心血管并发症、败血症、肺栓塞、肝功能衰竭和大出血 [1,38,39]。大宗病例报道显示,接受根治性膀胱切除术后患者的5年总体生存率和无复发生存率分别为66%和68%,10年总体生存率和无复发生存率分别为43%和60%。肿瘤浸润深度和淋巴结情况是重要的预后指标。器官局限性病变的患者5年和10年的总体生存率达68%~74%和49%~54%,肿瘤特异生存率可达79%和73%。非器官局限性的患者5年和10年的总体生存率达30%~37%和22-23%,肿瘤特异生存率可达37%和33%。淋巴结阴性患者5年和10年总体生存率为57%~69%和41%~49%,肿瘤特异生存率为67%和62%。淋巴结阳性患者5年和10年总体生存率为25%~35%和21%~34%,肿瘤特异生存率为31%和28% [1,40]。
(二)尿流改道术
尿流改道术尚无标准治疗方案,目前有多种方法可选。尿流改道方式与术后并发症相关,尿流改道方式的选择需要根据患者的具体情况,如年龄、伴随疾病、预期寿命、盆腔手术及放疗史等,并结合患者的要求及术者经验慎重选择 [41]。医生术前应与患者充分沟通,告知患者尿流改道的各种手术方式及其优缺点,共同决定尿流改道方式。保护肾功能、提高患者生活质量是治疗的最终目标 [42]。神经衰弱、精神病、预期寿命短、肝或肾功能受损的患者不宜采用复杂性尿流改道术 [43]。
随着腹腔镜技术的普及,腹腔镜手术和机器人辅助的腹腔镜手术也已应用于多种尿流改道术 [25]。现多采用在腹腔镜下行膀胱切除术后通过小切口在腹腔外行尿流改道术。国内外有报道完全腹腔镜下同时完成根治性膀胱切除及尿流改道术,但目前病例数少,临床资料尚不充分,目前的技术条件下是否有必要完全在腹腔镜下完成尿流改道仍存在争议 [44-46]。腹腔镜下尿流改道方式选择原则与开放性手术基本相同。
目前主要有以下几种尿流改道术式
1.原位新膀胱术(orthotopic neobladder)
原位新膀胱术由于患者不需要腹壁造口,保持了生活质量和自身形象,已逐渐被各大医疗中心作为根治性膀胱切除术后尿流改道的主要手术方式之一。可用于男性和女性患者。首选末段回肠去管化制作的回肠新膀胱 [47,48],如Studer膀胱 [49],M形回肠膀胱 [25]等。有报道显示去带乙状结肠新膀胱亦取得较好疗效 [50],升结肠、盲肠、胃应用相对较少。有经验的中心术后1年日间控尿率可达87%~96%,夜间控尿率可达72%~95% [49,51-53]。缺点是可能出现尿失禁和排尿困难,部分患者需要长期导尿或间歇性自我导尿 [51]。根据报道22%的患者术后出现各种并发症,远期并发症包括日间及夜间尿失禁(分别为8%~10%,20%~30%)、输尿管肠道吻合口狭窄(3%~18%)、尿潴留(4%~12%)、代谢性疾病、维生素B12缺乏病等 [52,53]。保留神经血管束的膀胱切除方式可以改善术后尿控 [54,55]。另一缺点是存在尿道肿瘤复发的风险,尿道肿瘤复发率约为1.5%~7%,如膀胱内存在多发原位癌或侵犯前列腺尿道则复发率高达35% [56,57]。建议术前男性患者行尿道前列腺部可疑组织活检,女性行膀胱颈活检,或者术中行冷冻切片检查,术后应定期行尿道镜检和尿脱落细胞学检查 [56,58]。
采用原位新膀胱作为尿流改道方式应满足以下条件:①尿道完整无损和外括约肌功能良好;②术中尿道切缘肿瘤阴性;③肾脏功能良好可保证电解质平衡及废物排泄;④肠道无明显病变。术前膀胱尿道镜检查明确肿瘤侵犯尿道、膀胱多发原位癌、盆腔淋巴结转移、估计肿瘤不能根治、术后盆腔局部复发可能性大、高剂量术前放疗、复杂的尿道狭窄以及生活不能自理者为原位新膀胱术的禁忌证,女性患者肿瘤侵犯膀胱颈、阴道前壁亦为手术禁忌。存在膈肌裂孔疝、腹壁疝、盆底肌松弛、子宫脱垂等影响腹压的病变时应慎重选择,必要时同时处理该病变。在严格掌握适应证情况下,原位新膀胱术不影响肿瘤治疗效果 [43,56]。
2.回肠通道术(ileal conduit)
回肠通道术是一种经典的简单、安全、有效的不可控尿流改道的术式,是不可控尿流改道的首选术式,也是最常用的尿流改道方式之一。其主要缺点是需腹壁造口、终身佩戴集尿袋。术后早期并发症可达48%,包括尿路感染、肾盂肾炎、输尿管回肠吻合口漏或狭窄 [59]。长期随访结果表明,主要远期并发症是造口相关并发症(24%)、上尿路的功能和形态学上的改变(30%) [60-62]。随着随访时间的增加并发症相应增加,5年并发症为45%,15年并发症达94%,后组患者上尿路的改变和尿石形成发生率分别达50%和38% [61]。各种形式的肠道尿流改道中,回肠通道术的晚期并发症要少于可控贮尿囊或原位新膀胱 [60]。伴有短肠综合征、小肠炎性疾病、回肠受到广泛射线照射的患者不适于此术式 [56]。
对于无法采用回肠的患者,可采用结肠通道术(colon conduit)作为替代术式。横结肠膀胱术对于进行过盆腔放疗或输尿管过短的患者可选用 [63,64]。
3.输尿管皮肤造口术(cutaneous uretero-stomy)
输尿管皮肤造口术是一种简单、安全术式。适用于预期寿命短、有远处转移、姑息性膀胱切除、肠道疾患无法利用肠管进行尿流改道或全身状态不能耐受手术者。由于输尿管直径小,皮肤造口狭窄发生率较高 [65]。尿流改道相关的并发症发生率方面,输尿管皮肤造口术要明显低于回、结肠通道术 [59]。但是输尿管皮肤造口术后出现造口狭窄和逆行泌尿系感染的风险比回肠通道术高 [60]。
4.其他尿流改道方法
(1)经皮可控尿流改道术(continent cutaneous urinary diversion):
经皮可控尿流改道术,是上世纪80年代兴起的一种术式,以Kock Pouch 和Indiana Pouch 为代表,由肠道去管重建的低压贮尿囊,抗反流输尿管吻合和可控尿的腹壁造口组成,患者术后需间歇性自行插管导尿。由于该术式并发症发生率高,目前已趋于淘汰。
(2)利用肛门控尿术式 利用肛门括约肌控制尿液的术式包括:
①尿粪合流术,如输尿管乙状结肠吻合术;②尿粪分流术,如直肠膀胱术(直肠膀胱、结肠腹壁造口术)。输尿管乙状结肠吻合术由于易出现逆行感染、高氯性酸中毒、肾功能受损和恶变等并发症,现已很少用,但这种术式的改良(如Mainz Ⅱ术式)可以减少并发症的发生,所以还被一些治疗中心选择应用 [66,67]。
无论采用何种尿流改道方式,患者术后应定期复查,了解是否存在上尿路梗阻、感染以及结石情况,及时治疗以保护肾功能。接受原位新膀胱手术的患者需要更密切的随访。
(三)保留膀胱的综合治疗
对于身体条件不能耐受根治性膀胱切除术,或不愿接受根治性膀胱切除术的肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者,可以考虑行保留膀胱的综合治疗。鉴于肌层浸润性膀胱癌较高的淋巴结转移比例,考虑施行保留膀胱治疗的患者需经过细致选择,对肿瘤性质、浸润深度进行综合评估,正确选择保留膀胱的手术方式,并辅以术后化学治疗和放射治疗,且术后需进行密切随访 [68,69],必要时行挽救性膀胱切除术。
肌层浸润性膀胱癌保留膀胱的手术方式有两种:经尿道膀胱肿瘤切除术(TURBT)和膀胱部分切除术。对于多数保留膀胱的肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者,可通过经尿道途径切除肿瘤。但对于部分患者应考虑行膀胱部分切除术:肿瘤位于膀胱憩室内、输尿管开口周围或肿瘤位于经尿道手术操作盲区的患者,有严重尿道狭窄和无法承受截石位的患者,术前影像学检查提示上尿路积水以及盆腔淋巴结肿大的患者。手术应最大限度切除肿瘤。近来有学者认为对于T 2期患者,初次TURBT术后4~6周内再次行TURBT并结合化疗与放疗有助于保全膀胱 [70]。
目前保留膀胱的治疗方法有以下几种:
(1)单纯TURBT:
仅对少部分肿瘤局限于浅肌层、且对肿瘤基底再次分期活检阴性的患者可采用,但基底活检为pT0或pT1的患者中有一半会进展成浸润性膀胱癌而被迫行全膀胱切除,肿瘤特异死亡率占47% [71],因此不建议采用该方法。
(2)TURBT联合外放射治疗:
主要针对不适合膀胱癌根治术或不能耐受化疗的患者。这组患者5年存活率从30%~60%,肿瘤特异存活率从20%~50% [72-76]。
(3)TURBT联合化疗:
病理完全反应率可为8%~26% [77-79],对T 3/T 4使用顺铂为基础的化疗,其CR和PR分别为11%和34% [80,81]。3周期化疗后,通过膀胱镜和活检再次评估,如无残余病灶,则也要警惕有残余病灶存在的可能;如病灶仍存在,则行挽救性全膀胱切除 [82]。
(4)TURBT 联合放、化疗:
最大限度经尿道电切手术后,以顺铂为基础的化疗联合放疗可使完全缓解率达到60%~80%,可使40%~45%的患者保留完整膀胱存活4~5年,长期存活达50%~60%(与根治性膀胱切除术相媲美)。如果联合治疗不敏感,则推荐早期行根治性膀胱切除术 [83-85]。
(5)膀胱部分切除术联合化疗:
不到5%的肌层浸润型膀胱癌可通过膀胱部分切除达到治愈的目的。可使约27%的患者避免全膀胱切除手术 [86]。
由于单一的治疗手段难以达到理想的保留膀胱的效果,所以目前保留膀胱的治疗多采取手术、化疗和放疗的三联综合治疗 [87]。该治疗方案的选择指征必须严格控制,而且患者必须具有良好的依从性,才能得到较好的治疗效果。有研究显示,TURBT术后辅以顺铂类化疗方案及放射治疗,患者的治疗有效率可以达到60%~80%,但是期间患者必须接受严密的观察,并及时调整治疗方案 [88-90]。
肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者施行保留膀胱综合治疗的5年总体生存率为45%~73%,10年总体生存率为29%~49% [89,91-93]。
(四)化疗
尿路上皮癌细胞已被证明对于铂类、吉西他滨、阿霉素及紫杉醇等化疗药物敏感,转移性膀胱尿路上皮癌患者对于含铂类药物的联合化疗方案总体反应率可达50%左右 [94,95]。化疗是肌层浸润性膀胱癌在根治性膀胱切除术之外重要的辅助治疗手段,主要的化疗方式包括新辅助化疗和辅助化疗。
1.新辅助化疗
对于可手术的 T 2~T 4a期患者,可选择新辅助化疗联合根治性膀胱切除术 [96]。临床实验数据表明对于肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者新辅助化疗可以明显提高肿瘤完全反应率并延长患者的总体生存期 [97]。已有的几项荟萃分析均表明以顺铂为基础的联合化疗方案可以降低患者死亡风险达10%~13%,提高五年总体生存率5%,对于cT 3患者5年生存率提高可达11% [98-100]。
副作用以及是否会影响手术是影响新辅助治疗决策的重要因素。根据已有的临床实验数据,新辅助化疗主要引起包括消化道反应、贫血及白细胞降低等不良反应,但不增加术后3~4级并发症发生率 [97],而且手术完成率也与无化疗组相似,在Nordic研究中,306例有意图进行新辅助治疗的患者中,最终有80%接受了治疗,并且其中89%的患者完成了计划的3疗程化疗 [101]。
虽然新辅助化疗的疗效得到临床实验数据的肯定,但具体的方案、疗程以及适应证仍需进一步探讨。根据大多数临床实验条件的设定,目前一般推荐新辅助化疗的适应证包括体力状态评分(performance status,PS)0~1分,血清肌酐清除率>50ml/min。对于有肾功能不全的患者,可以考虑使用卡铂替代顺铂治疗。疗程一般推荐2~3个疗程。
2.辅助化疗
近年来有研究发现,辅助化疗对于患者生存期的改善不如新辅助化疗,对于pT 3~4或伴有淋巴结转移的患者可以考虑行辅助化疗。目前尚无临床研究比较术后立即开始的辅助化疗和发现转移病灶后再开始的化疗在生存期上的获益。因此,术后常规辅助化疗仍无充分依据。但已有临床研究证实术后有高危复发风险的患者给予含顺铂的联合化疗可以降低肿瘤复发率 [102]。
在多数已进行的临床实验中,pT3~4或伴有淋巴结转移的患者被推荐入组行辅助化疗,方案含顺铂的联合化疗,一般在条件许可的情况下完成4~6个疗程 [103-105]。
3.化疗方案
尿路上皮癌细胞对于多种化疗药物敏感,但单药治疗的反应率均不高,顺铂为12% [106],卡铂12% [107],甲氨蝶呤29%,阿霉素19%,表柔比星15%,丝裂霉素13%,5-FU 35%,长春碱14%,异环磷酰胺29% [108,109],吉西他滨25% [110],多西他赛31% [111]。目前临床中多采用含铂类的联合化疗方案。
(1)GC(吉西他滨和顺铂)方案:
是目前临床最常用的标准一线治疗方案,不良反应较MVAC方案轻而疗效相似。吉西他滨1000~1200mg/m 2第1、8天静脉滴注,顺铂70mg/m 2第2天静脉滴注,每3周(21天方案)为一个周期。对于转移性膀胱癌的研究显示GC方案的CR为15%,PR为33%,中位疾病进展时间为23周,中位总生存时间为13.8个月 [112]。GC方案也有28天方案(增加第15天静脉滴注吉西他滨),但由于延长了给药时间而疗效及不良反应与21天方案相似,临床中现较少应用 [113]。
(2)MVAC(甲氨蝶呤、长春碱、阿霉素、顺铂)方案:
是膀胱尿路上皮癌传统的标准化疗方案 [114]。甲氨蝶呤30mg/m 2第1、15、22天静脉滴注,长春碱3mg/m 2第2、15、22天静脉滴注,阿霉素30mg/m 2第2天静脉滴注,顺铂70mg/m 2第2天静脉滴注,每4周为一个周期。两项随机前瞻性研究已经证实MVAC方案效果明显好于单种药物化疗效果 [115,116]。多项研究显示此方案的CR为15%~25%,有效率为50%~70%,中位总生存时间为14.8个月 [112]。目前临床中更推荐采用改良的强化治疗方案,即DD-MVAC方案,甲氨蝶呤30mg/m 2第1天静脉滴注,长春碱3mg/m 2,阿霉素30mg/m 2,顺铂70mg/m 2第2天静脉滴注,每2周重复,化疗期间常规预防性应用粒系生长因子。采用该方案后,相同时间内化疗药物剂量提高而不良反应反而减少,并且在肿瘤的无进展生存及化疗的总体反应率都优于传统的MVAC,故而在临床中已经基本取代MVAC方案 [114]。
(3)CMV方案:
甲氨蝶呤30mg/m 2、长春碱4mg/m 2第1、8天静脉滴注,顺铂100mg/m 2第2天静脉滴注,每3周为一个周期。在最近报道的一项三期临床实验中,CMV新辅助化疗被证明可降低死亡风险16%,提高10年生存率6%,因而也被作为可用于新辅助化疗的一线方案 [117]。
(4)其他药物:
近年也有报道采用卡铂替代顺铂可以取得相似的疗效 [118-120],尤其适用于年老或肾功能受损的不能耐受顺铂治疗的肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者。而在一项采用卡铂/多西他赛联用对照MVAC方案的三期临床实验中,由于卡铂组反应率仅28.2%而提前终止 [121]。由于目前尚缺少足够的临床实验数据支持,在不能明确获益的情况下,对于新辅助化疗,除了参加临床实验或患者在充分知情的情况仍有意愿,一般不推荐其他化疗药物或方案来替代上述方案。对于不能耐受顺铂的患者,一般建议直接行手术治疗 [122]。
(五)膀胱癌的放疗
肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者在某些情况下,如不愿意接受根治性膀胱切除术、全身条件不能耐受根治性膀胱切除手术,或肿瘤已无法根治性切除时,可选用放射治疗或化疗+放射治疗 [123]。但对于肌层浸润性膀胱癌,单纯放疗患者的总生存期短于根治性膀胱切除术 [124]。膀胱癌的放疗可分为根治性放疗、辅助性放疗和姑息性放疗。
1.根治性放疗
膀胱外照射方法包括常规外照射、三维适形放疗及调强适形放疗。单纯放射治疗靶区剂量通常为60~66Gy,每天剂量通常为1.8~2Gy,整个疗程不超过6~7周 [125,126]。目前常用的放疗日程为:①50~55Gy,分25~28次完成(> 4周);②64~66Gy,分32~33次完成(> 6.5周) [127]。放疗的局部控制率约为30%~50% [128],肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者5年总的生存率约为40%~60%,肿瘤特异生存率为35%~40%,局部复发率约为30% [129]。最近有文献报道,对于肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者保留膀胱,放疗联合化疗不会增加副反应,但能有效的提高局部控制率 [130]。
欧洲文献报道,T1/ T2期小肿瘤患者可通过膀胱切开显露肿瘤后置入放射性碘、铱、钽或铯行组织内近距离照射,再联合外照射和保留膀胱的手术,从而达到治疗目的。根据肿瘤分期不同,5年生存率可达60%~80% [131]。
2.辅助性放疗
通过术前4~6周的放疗,可使40%~65%的患者肿瘤降期,使10%~42%的患者提高局部肿瘤控制率,但根治性膀胱切除术前放疗对延长患者生存是否有益尚不明确 [132-135],因此不推荐术前放疗。根治性膀胱切除或膀胱部分切除手术未切净的残存肿瘤或术后病理切缘阳性者,可行术后辅助放疗 [136]。
3.姑息性放疗
通过短程放疗(7Gy×3天;3~3.5Gy×10天)可减轻因膀胱肿瘤巨大造成无法控制的症状,如血尿、尿急、疼痛等。但这种治疗可增加急性肠道并发症的危险,包括腹泻和腹部痉挛疼痛 [127,137]。
(六)不能根治的膀胱癌的治疗
1.姑息性膀胱切除
对于无法手术治愈的局部晚期膀胱癌患者(T4b),常伴有出血、疼痛、排尿困难和尿路梗阻,而这些症状会导致患者一般状态进一步恶化。对于顽固性血尿的晚期膀胱癌的患者,姑息性膀胱切除及尿流改道是有效治疗方法。但由于手术风险较高,一般仅在没有其他选择的情况下采用 [138,139]。
局部晚期肌层浸润性膀胱癌可以导致输尿管梗阻。双侧输尿管梗阻或孤立肾伴输尿管梗阻会导致尿毒症。可选择姑息性膀胱切除及输尿管造口或永久性肾造瘘术以解除梗阻。
2.对症治疗
不能根治的膀胱癌患者往往面临以下几个问题:疼痛、出血、排尿困难和上尿路梗阻。支持治疗在这些患者中有重要的意义。
(1)上尿路梗阻:
肾造瘘可以有效解决上尿路梗阻,但是多数患者更愿意选择输尿管内支架,因为输尿管内支架管比肾造瘘管对生活带来的不便更少。但是输尿管支架管有时难以顺利置入并且需要定期更换,而且输尿管支架管也会出现堵塞及移位等意外情况。尿流改道(加或不加姑息性膀胱切除)也是解除上尿路梗阻的有效措施之一。
(2)出血和疼痛:
对于无法根治的膀胱癌患者出现血尿,首先要明确患者是否存在凝血功能障碍或是否有使用抗凝药物。对于肿瘤填满膀胱腔的患者,难以进行经尿道电凝或激光凝固止血,予膀胱内灌注1%硝酸银或1%~2%的明矾可以达到较好的止血效果,且无需麻醉 [140]。另一种可选择的止血方法为膀胱内注入福尔马林,福尔马林浓度一般为2.5%~4%,保留30分钟。由于此法会导致疼痛,一般需要局部或全身麻醉。福尔马林灌注出现副作用的风险高,如膀胱纤维化等 [141]。膀胱输尿管返流的患者应避免膀胱内灌注福尔马林,以免造成肾脏损伤。放疗也具有一定的止血作用,同时也有止痛作用。有报道显示,放疗对出血和疼痛的控制率分别为59%和73% [142]。如果上述各种方法均无法控制出血,膀胱切除尿流改道是最后的选择。
(七)随访
膀胱癌患者接受根治性膀胱切除术和尿流改道术后必须进行长期随访,随访重点包括肿瘤复发和与尿流改道相关的并发症。
根治性膀胱切除术后肿瘤复发和进展的危险主要与组织病理学分期相关,局部复发和进展以及远处转移在手术后的前24个月内最高,24~36个月时逐渐降低,36个月后则相对较低 [143]。肿瘤复发通过定期的影像学检查很容易发现,但是间隔多长时间进行检查仍然存在着争论。有学者推荐pT1期肿瘤患者每年进行一次体格检查、血液生化检查、胸部X线检查和B超检查(包括肝、肾、腹膜后等);pT2期肿瘤患者6个月进行一次上述检查而pT3期肿瘤患者每3个月进行一次。此外,对于pT3期肿瘤患者应该每半年进行一次盆腔CT检查 [144]。需要特别指出的是,上尿路影像学检查对于排除输尿管狭窄和上尿路肿瘤的存在是有价值的,上尿路肿瘤虽然并不常见,但是一旦发现往往需要手术治疗 [145]。
根治性膀胱切除术后尿流改道患者的随访应包括手术相关并发症:输尿管狭窄或反流、贮尿囊尿潴留、泌尿系感染、结石、尿失禁、相关代谢问题(如维生素B 12缺乏所致贫血和外周神经病变、水电解质、酸碱平衡紊乱)以及有无肿瘤复发及转移等。
推荐意见
1.对于肌层浸润性膀胱尿路上皮癌首选根治性膀胱切除术,并同时进行标准盆腔淋巴结清扫,必要时行扩大盆腔淋巴结清扫。
2.如肿瘤侵犯男性尿道前列腺部及(或)其远端、女性膀胱颈部及(或)其远端尿道,或手术尿道切缘阳性时,应行全尿道切除术。
3.特殊情况下需选择保留膀胱的治疗方法时,须与患者充分沟通并告知风险,应辅以放、化疗,并密切随访。
4.尿流改道方式的选择应与患者充分沟通,告知尿流改道的各种手术方式及其优缺点。应重视保护肾功能、提高患者生活质量。原位新膀胱术生活质量较高,在有条件的医疗中心,对有适应证的患者可推荐使用。回肠通道术并发症相对较少,是首选的尿流改道方式之一。输尿管皮肤造口术适用于高龄、一般情况差、不能根治肿瘤、不能使用肠道的患者。
5.对于cT2~cT4a期肌层浸润性膀胱癌围手术期化疗推荐GC/DD-MVAC/CMV方案。拟行根治性膀胱切除术治疗的患者,术前可选择新辅助化疗。对于pT3~4/N+患者,术后推荐辅助化疗。
6.对于肌层浸润性膀胱癌,化疗和放疗可作为辅助性治疗。
7.对于有远处转移或局部浸润明显不能根治性切除的患者,为了提高生活质量,可以选择姑息性放疗或膀胱切除。如有上尿路梗阻,可选用肾造瘘、输尿管内支架、输尿管造口等方法解除。
8.根治性膀胱切除术后患者应该根据肿瘤分期确定随访方案并进行终身随访,随访项目应包括肿瘤是否复发或转移,手术及尿流改道相关并发症等等。
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六、膀胱非尿路上皮肿瘤
(一)鳞状细胞癌(Squamous cell carcinoma,SCC)
膀胱鳞状细胞癌(SCC)可分为非血吸虫病性膀胱SCC和血吸虫病性膀胱SCC。诊断主要靠膀胱镜活检。单纯的膀胱SCC患者应选择根治性膀胱切除术,高分级、高分期肿瘤术前放疗有助于预防盆腔复发 [1,2]。膀胱SCC的5年生存率约为50% [1,2]。血吸虫病性膀胱SCC的预后相对较好 [1]。
1.非血吸虫病性膀胱鳞状细胞癌
细菌感染、异物、慢性下尿路梗阻或膀胱结石等引起的慢性炎症,以及膀胱黏膜白斑、长期留置导尿管等可能与膀胱SCC的发生有关 [3-5]。
非血吸虫病性膀胱SCC好发于膀胱三角区和侧壁,主要是溃疡和浸润,很少呈乳头样生长,可伴有膀胱憩室或膀胱结石。约8%膀胱SCC发生转移 [2]。血尿是主要的临床表现,93%的患者伴有泌尿系统感染 [6]。本病单纯放疗效果差 [7],根治性膀胱切除术疗效优于放疗 [8],术前放疗加根治性膀胱切除术比单纯根治性膀胱切除术效果更好 [2]。膀胱SCC是一种化疗抵抗的肿瘤,目前还未发现有效的化疗方案 [9]。
2.血吸虫病性膀胱鳞状细胞癌
血吸虫病性膀胱SCC的发生可能与血吸虫存在导致的细菌和病毒感染有关,而非寄生虫本身 [10]。维生素A缺乏也可能是膀胱上皮鳞状化生及肿瘤发生的重要原因之一。
血吸虫病性膀胱SCC的平均发病年龄比非血吸虫病性膀胱SCC低10~20岁。主要症状是尿频、尿痛和血尿。肿瘤多发于膀胱后壁的上半部分或顶部,很少发生于三角区。确诊主要依靠膀胱镜检查活检以及麻醉状态下仔细的双合诊 [11]。
根治性膀胱切除术是血吸虫病性膀胱SCC治疗的主要方法。研究显示术前放疗可改善高分级、高分期肿瘤患者的预后 [12]。
(二)腺癌(Adenocarcinoma)
根据组织来源膀胱腺癌可分为三种类型:原发性非脐尿管腺癌、脐尿管腺癌、转移性腺癌。诊断主要依靠膀胱镜活检,超声、CT以及MRI等检查可显示肿瘤大小、侵犯范围及临床分期,特别是对脐尿管腺癌,当肿瘤未侵及膀胱黏膜时,膀胱镜检可无异常发现。
1.非脐尿管腺癌
非脐尿管腺癌可能因移行上皮腺性化生引起 [13]。长期的慢性刺激、梗阻及膀胱外翻则是引起化生的常见原因 [14,15]。血吸虫感染也是腺癌发生原因之一,在血吸虫流行地区膀胱腺癌约占膀胱癌的10% [16]。
膀胱腺癌主要症状有血尿、尿痛、膀胱刺激症状、粘液尿。原发性膀胱腺癌发生于膀胱三角区及膀胱侧壁,病变进展较快,多为肌层浸润性膀胱癌 [16]。非脐尿管腺癌的患者伴腺性膀胱炎比原位癌更常见 [17]。
临床就诊时大多数已属局部晚期,宜行根治性膀胱切除术以提高疗效。经尿道切除或膀胱部分切除术的疗效差 [18-20]。术后辅以放射治疗,可以提高肿瘤无复发生存率 [21]。对于进展期和已有转移的腺癌可以考虑化疗,一般采用5-氟尿嘧啶为基础的化疗,M-VAC方案化疗无效 [22]。
2.脐尿管腺癌
脐尿管腺癌可能与脐尿管上皮增生及其内覆移行上皮腺性化生有关 [23,24],约占膀胱腺癌的1/3 [25]。脐尿管腺癌只发生在膀胱顶部前壁,膀胱黏膜无腺性膀胱炎和囊性膀胱炎及肠上皮化生,肿瘤集中于膀胱壁,即肌间或更深层,而非黏膜层,可见脐尿管残留 [26]。脐尿管腺癌可浸润到膀胱壁深层、脐、Retzius间隙及前腹壁。脐尿管腺癌分期一直沿用Sheldon提出的分期:Ⅰ期,肿瘤局限于脐尿管黏膜;Ⅱ期,局部侵袭突破黏膜但局限在脐尿管;Ⅲ期,局部累及膀胱(A),腹壁(B),腹膜(C),其他临近脏器(D);Ⅳ期,局部淋巴结转移(A),远处转移(B)。而Mayo Clinic的分期相对简单:Ⅰ 期,肿瘤局限于脐尿管黏膜;Ⅱ期,局部累及脐尿管或膀胱肌层;Ⅲ期,局部淋巴结转移;Ⅳ期,远处淋巴结或脏器转移 [27]。
脐尿管腺癌的治疗主要为手术治疗,包括扩大性膀胱部分切除术和根治性膀胱切除术。放疗和化疗的效果不佳 [28]。近年来脐尿管腺癌采用扩大性膀胱部分切除术受到重视 [29],手术应尽可能的整块切除膀胱顶、脐尿管和脐,切除范围包括部分腹直肌、腹直肌后鞘、腹膜及弓状线。术后复发和转移是治疗失败的主要原因,一般在术后2年内发生 [30]。常见的转移部位是骨、肺、肝和盆腔淋巴结 [29]。脐尿管腺癌诊断时往往分期较高,有较高的远处转移风险。美国M.D.Anderson肿瘤中心的经验:边缘阴性与否和淋巴结情况是影响预后的重要因素,总体5年生存率为40%,平均生存46个月。
3.转移性腺癌
转移性腺癌是最常见的膀胱腺癌,原发病灶包括来自直肠、胃、子宫内膜、乳腺、前列腺和卵巢。治疗上以处理原发病为主的综合治疗。
(三)未分化癌(小细胞癌 Small cell carcinoma)
未分化癌少见,已报道有一种小细胞癌类型,组织学上类似肺小细胞癌。肿瘤好发于膀胱两侧壁和膀胱底部。膀胱小细胞癌瘤体直径往往较大,平均约5cm [31]。与尿路上皮癌相似,膀胱小细胞癌主要通过淋巴转移,不同点在于其更具侵袭性,转移的更早、更快。最常见的转移部位依次为淋巴结、肝脏、骨骼、肺和大脑 [32]。就诊时患者往往已有深肌层浸润 [33]。膀胱小细胞癌的诊断同尿路上皮癌,但应考虑有无远处转移。膀胱小细胞癌与膀胱尿路上皮癌在CT上的区别是:膀胱小细胞癌广基、无蒂、息肉样改变,向膀胱壁内浸润明显,在未出现膀胱邻近器官或淋巴结转移时往往已侵犯膀胱全层 [34]。
膀胱小细胞癌细胞病理学特征为零散的、相互孤立、圆形、大小均匀的小细胞,细胞学上相邻的肿瘤细胞缺乏巢状或腺状结构是膀胱小细胞癌最重要的特征 [33]。
治疗考虑采用小细胞肺癌的化疗方案做辅助化疗或者新辅助化疗,并联合局部治疗(手术或放疗) [9]。研究认为新辅助化疗有助于提高生存率 [35]。手术治疗应选择根治性膀胱切除术,病理分期为T3、T4期考虑术后辅助化疗,化疗一般选用顺铂和依托泊甙 [31]。
(四)混合细胞癌(尿路上皮肿瘤的变异)
混合细胞癌是指原发于膀胱的两种不同类型恶性肿瘤同时出现或并存。通常以鳞癌、腺癌或小细胞癌,与尿路上皮癌共生 [36]。其病程进展快,恶性程度高,预后极差,治疗上建议行根治性膀胱切除术 [37]。根治术后没有证据表明辅助化疗有效(小细胞癌除外)。如果含有小细胞癌的成分,根治性膀胱切除术后根据分期选择小细胞癌的辅助化疗方案 [38]。最近的临床研究试验数据(SOG8710,Level1b)表明在含有鳞状上皮分化或腺样分化成分的尿路上皮膀胱混合性细胞癌,局部进展性肿瘤能从铂类联合新辅助化疗(MVAC方案)中获益 [39]。
(五)肉瘤
膀胱原发性肉瘤较罕见,膀胱肉瘤是指膀胱恶性软组织非上皮肿瘤,50%为平滑肌肉瘤(发生率在膀胱癌恶性肿瘤低于1%),好发于中老年人,部分患者有全身化疗(环磷酰胺)和局部放疗史,临床主要表现为肉眼血尿,少数患者表现为尿频,尿痛,排尿困难,或下腹包块来就诊。肿瘤可以发生在膀胱任何部位,但以膀胱顶部或两侧壁为多见。肿瘤较大,无包膜,多数侵及膀胱深层或全层,质硬,伴粘液,出血,局部坏死或溃疡。20%为横纹肌肉瘤,好发于儿童和青少年 [40]。其余的为血管肉瘤,骨源性肉瘤,粘液脂肪肉瘤,纤维肉瘤,和未分型的肉瘤等均较罕见 [41,42]。还有两种较特殊罕见的类型为肉瘤样癌(sarcomatoid carcinoma,SaC)和癌肉瘤(Carcinosarcoma,CS)。在膀胱恶性肿瘤中分别占0.07%和0.09% [43]。肉瘤样癌具有间充质梭状细胞结构中存在上皮样分化,为上皮间质转化,表现为上皮细胞阳性分子标记;而癌肉瘤具有恶性上皮与典型肉瘤组织学结构。均具有肉瘤的生物学行为特征。膀胱肉瘤具有高侵袭生物行为,就诊时多数已侵及肌层或膀胱外,一旦确诊需行根治性膀胱切除术。
(六)其他
恶性纤维组织细胞瘤:罕见肿瘤,以肉眼血尿就诊,发现时体积较大,侵及膀胱全层。确诊后行根治性膀胱切除术,但极易发生局部复发和远处转移。术后生存期短,多数死于广泛转移。放化疗作用不明显 [44]。
原发神经外胚层瘤:极罕见,临床表现为尿频,尿痛,血尿,急迫性尿失禁,严重时出现下肢淋巴水肿,该肿瘤高度恶性,生长极快,就诊时肿瘤往往侵犯到膀胱外。因而预后极差 [45]。
恶性外周神经鞘瘤:极罕见,可能起源于膀胱自主神经丛神经鞘。高度恶性,生长极快,在初次手术后2个月后复发或转移,预后极差 [46]。
血管外皮细胞瘤:极罕见,临床表现为慢性增大的无痛性肿块,肿瘤有假性包膜,瘤中常伴出血和坏死区,可发生进行性排尿梗阻症状,伴腹股沟疼痛,已发生急性尿潴留。尽管表现为良性肿瘤发展过程,但50%患者最终发生转移 [47]。
黑色素瘤:原发性膀胱黑色素瘤极其罕见,细胞起源难以确定,尿道发生率高于膀胱。多数继发于皮肤黑色素瘤转移。原发性黑色素瘤的治疗手段为根治性膀胱切除,但预后较差 [48]。
淋巴瘤:膀胱淋巴瘤是系统性淋巴瘤的一部分转移灶。原发性膀胱淋巴瘤极其罕见,病理以弥漫大B细胞淋巴瘤和黏膜相关淋巴组织结节外周淋巴瘤为常见类型。以女性患者多见。多数原发性肿瘤较局限,分级较低,局部放疗作为推荐的治疗,预后较好。系统性淋巴瘤依赖于全身系统性的治疗 [49,50]。
副节瘤和嗜铬细胞瘤:膀胱嗜铬细胞瘤占膀胱肿瘤的0.05%,可能起源于膀胱逼尿肌的交感神经丛,与肾上腺嗜铬细胞瘤一样,恶性嗜铬细胞瘤仅为10%。临床症状与肾上腺嗜铬细胞瘤类似。表现为排尿时阵发性高血压,头晕,视物模糊,大汗。如考虑该病,行膀胱镜检查前应给予α受体阻滞剂。同位素间位碘苄胍扫描特异性为95%。标准的治疗是膀胱部分切除合并盆腔淋巴结切除。围手术期处理同肾上腺肾上腺嗜铬细胞瘤。由于该肿瘤在病理上难以判断良性与恶性,术后随访很重要 [51]。
膀胱假性瘤:极罕见,低度恶性,组织学起源不明,有些病理表现梭形细胞,和平滑肌肉瘤难以区分。肿瘤局部切除后复发和转移极罕见。如果诊断明确,根据肿瘤大小行经尿道膀胱肿瘤电切术或膀胱部分切除术即可;但如果诊断不能与肉瘤区分,建议行根治性膀胱切除术 [52,53]。
其他明确为良性膀胱肿瘤如膀胱海绵状血管瘤、膀胱壁纤维瘤、膀胱平滑肌瘤,进行局部切除或膀胱部分切除 [54]。
推荐意见
1.膀胱非尿路上皮癌的治疗原则是选择根治性膀胱切除术。
2.高分级、高分期的膀胱鳞状细胞癌术前放疗可改善预后。
3.膀胱脐尿管腺癌可选择扩大性膀胱部分切除术,非脐尿管腺癌根治性膀胱切除术后可选择辅助放疗或/和化疗。
4.病理分期为T3、T4期膀胱小细胞癌可选择术后辅助化疗。
5.对于尿路上皮混合细胞癌,除了根治性手术外,新辅助或辅助化疗有可能提高生存。
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七、膀胱癌患者的生活质量与预后
(一)膀胱癌患者的生活质量
健康相关生活质量(health-related quality of life,HRQL)研究目前已被广泛应用于肿瘤和慢性病临床治疗方法的筛选、预防性干预措施效果的评价以及卫生资源分配的决策等方面。但是由于大规模的多中心随机对照数据的缺失,国内外对于膀胱癌患者生活质量的研究较少,国内的高质量研究更加不足,这应引起泌尿外科医师的重视。
膀胱癌患者生活质量评估应包含身体、情绪、社会活动方面的内容以及相关的并发症(如排尿问题、尿瘘、皮肤问题、性功能问题等)。生活质量测定主要是通过适宜的量表来完成。目前膀胱癌研究中应用较多的生活质量测定量表包括FACT(functional assessment of cancer therapy)-G [1],EORTC QLQ-C30 [2]、SF(short form)-36 [3]、FACT-BL [4]和FACT- Vanderbilt cystectomy index(FACT-VCI) [5]。
非肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者生活质量的相关研究较少,并且主要集中于术后灌注BCG的患者。随访中发现,非肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者的总体健康严重受损。患者接受第一次TURBT时心理健康受损最严重,而躯体功能、躯体角色、情感角色和社会功能在第二次或第三次TURBT时受损最严重。如果患者接受第四次或更多次TURBT,则除了总体健康外,其他几方面都将回到正常水平。此外,排尿问题(如血尿和尿频、尿急、尿痛等)是术后治疗过程中最为常见的症状,严重影响患者的生活质量,尤其是在治疗早期,但随着治疗的持续尤其是当治疗间期延长后将逐步减轻 [6-7]。
肌层浸润性膀胱癌患者生活质量研究的焦点是全膀胱切除术后接受不同尿流改道术式者相互之间的比较以及与正常人群之间的比较。总体来讲,接受可控膀胱或原位新膀胱手术患者的生活质量优于接受非可控性尿流改道手术的患者 [8-13],但是也有文献报道指出前者并不优于后者 [14-16]。对患者术后生活质量的评价应充分考虑患病时间、患者年龄、性格、相处能力、文化背景、对手术方案及其术后可能面临处境的了解以及患者完成问卷的方式、地点等各种因素的影响。
(二)膀胱癌的预后因素
非肌层浸润性膀胱癌的预后与肿瘤分级、分期、肿瘤大小、肿瘤复发时间和频率、肿瘤数目以及是否存在原位癌等因素密切相关,其中肿瘤的病理分级和分期是影响预后的最重要因素 [17-20]。对于晚期膀胱癌的患者,身体状态与内脏转移是影响预后的重要因素。国内一项研究显示,各期膀胱癌患者5年生存率分别为T a~T 1期91.9%、T 2期84.3%、T 3期43.9%、T 4期10.2%。各分级膀胱癌患者5年生存率分别为G 1级91.4%、G 2级82.7%、G 3级62.6% [21]。非肌层浸润性膀胱癌复发及进展的概率可以通过表2-5获得。
表2-5 非肌层浸润膀胱癌肿瘤分期与分级与预后及进展的关系 [22]
晚期及转移性膀胱癌患者的中位存活时间约14个月,而能够获得无肿瘤进展生存的患者仅占15%,这其中包括20.9%的单纯局部淋巴结转移者及6.8%的内脏远处转移者。体力状态较差(Karnofsky PS评分小于80分)及内脏转移的患者预后明显变差。 [23]
对铂类耐药的晚期膀胱癌患者的总体无进展生存时间非常短,预后差的相关因素包括以下三个:1.血红蛋白小于10g/dL;2.肝脏转移;3.ECOGPS评分大于等于1。随着危险因素的增多,患者的无进展生存时间明显缩短。 [24]
近年来随着对肿瘤分子机制认识的加深,许多肿瘤标记物相继被发现可用于膀胱癌的预后判断。研究发现,核基质蛋白22(NMP-22)、端粒酶(telomerase)、血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)、透 明 质 酸 酶(hyaluronidase,HAase)、增殖相关核抗原Ki-67以及p53基因等均对膀胱癌的预后判断有一定价值 [25-30]。但必须指出的是,目前膀胱癌肿瘤标记物的研究尚处于实验室阶段,临床上尚没有一种标记物能准确估计膀胱癌的预后。
推荐意见
1.泌尿外科医师应该充分重视膀胱癌患者治疗后的健康相关生活质量。
2.治疗前,泌尿外科医师应该与膀胱癌患者就治疗方法选择及其并发症进行充分讨论,以使患者治疗后获得最佳的生活质量。
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