四 本书安排

从结构安排上,本书主要分为以下几个部分。在导论部分,主要是提出本书的研究问题,并对学术界已有的研究进行文献综述,然后简单概要本书的基本研究思路。第一章是本书的理论构建部分,其主要内容是对美国外交决策过程,尤其是威胁的评估过程进行归纳和抽象,在此基础上构建了一个美国威胁评估的双向互动理论和次序传递理论。第二章主要讨论了2006年至2011年美国自军方到文官、从社会到总统对美国国家安全战略的讨论,解释了美国为什么最终选择了以反恐战争为战略重心的决策过程。第三章主要是分析2009年至2015年美国国内的威胁认知,以及这种认知对美国国家安全战略的影响,即美国为什么选择兼顾打赢反恐战争和应对大国挑战,但是在前期重心更多是在反恐战争,而后期更多是在应对大国挑战。第四章探讨了2015年后美国国家战略的大调整,这一章致力于解释为何特朗普政府以后将大国视为战略竞争对手,并且致力于加强军备,在军事上积极应对大国的挑战。


[1]David Petraeus,“Lessons of History and Lessons of Vietnam,”Parameters,Vol.16,No.3,1986,p.43.

[2]王缉思:《大国战略》,中信出版社2016年版,第319页。

[3]Department of Defense,Quadrennial Defense Review Report 2006,Arlington,V.A.,February 6,2006;The White House,National Security Strategy 2006,Washington,D.C.,March 2006.

[4]Fred Kaplan,“The End of the Age of Petraeus:The Rise and Fall of Counterinsurgency,”Foreign Affairs,Vol.92,No.1,2013,pp.75-90.

[5]对伊拉克局势的分析,参见 David Petraeus,Report to Congress on the Situation in Iraq,Department of Defense,April 8-9,2008(http://archive.defense.gov/pdf/General_Petraeus_Testimony_to_Congress.pdf)。

[6]David Petraeus,“Learning Counterinsurgency:Observations from Soldiering in Iraq,”Military Review,Vol.86,No.1,2006,pp.2-12.

[7]对美国向伊拉克增兵的讨论,参见Peter D.Feaver,“The Right to Be Right:Civil-Military Relations and the Iraq Surge Decision,”International Security,Vol.35,No.4,2011,pp.87-125。

[8]The White House,National Security Strategy 2010,Washington,D.C.,May 2010.

[9]美国重返亚洲战略有几个具有代表性的时间节点。奥巴马在2009年11月14日访问日本,在东京发表演讲并阐述美国的亚洲政策,奥巴马表示会积极参与亚洲事务,参见Barack Obama,“Remarks by President Barack Obama at Suntory Hall,”Suntory Hall,Tokyo,Japan,November 14,2009(https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/realitycheck/the-press-office/remarks-president-barack-obama-suntory-hall);2010年 1月 12日,希拉里(Hillary Clinton)在夏威夷檀香山发表演讲,阐述美国重返亚洲的外交政策,参见Hillary Clinton,“Remarks on Regional Architecture in Asia:Principles and Priorities,”Honolulu,Hawaii,January 12,2010(https://2009-2017.state.gov/secretary/20092013clinton/rm/2010/01/135090.htm);2010年1月21日,科特·坎贝尔(Kurt M.Campbell)在参议院的听证会上提出美国介入亚太事务的原则,参见 Kurt M.Campbell,“Principles of U.S.Engagement in the Asia-Pacific,”Testimony before the Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs,Senate Foreign Relations Committee,Washington,D.C.,January 21,2010(http://www.state.gov/p/eap/rls/rm/2010/01/134168.htm)。

[10]Department of Defense,Quadrennial Defense Review Report 2010,Arlington,V.A.,February,2010.

[11]Hillary Clinton,“America’s Pacific Century,”Foreign Policy,No.189,2011,pp.56-63.

[12]Brack Obama,“Remarks By President Obama to the Australian Parliament,”Canberra,Australia,November 17,2011(http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/11/17/remarks-president-obama-australian-parliament).

[13]Department of Defense,Sustaining U.S.Global Leadership:Priorities for 21st Century Defense,Arlington,V.A.,January 2012.

[14]Ash Carter,“The Rebalance and Asia-Pacific Security:Building a Principled Security Network,”Foreign Affairs,Vol.95,No.6,2016,pp.65-75.

[15]Andrew F.Krepinevich,Why AirSea Battle?Washington,D.C.:Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments(CSBA),2010.

[16]Department of Defense,Quadrennial Defense Review Report 2010,Arlington,V.A.,February,2010,p.32.

[17]Bob Work,“The Third U.S.Offset Strategy and Its Implications for Partners and Allies,”Willard Hotel,Washington,D.C.,January 28,2015(http://www.defense.gov/News/Speeches/Speech-View/Article/606641/the-third-us-offset-strategy-and-its-implications-for-partners-and-allies).

[18]Harry Harding,“Has U.S.China Policy Failed?”The Washington Quarterly,Vol.38,No.3,2015,pp.100-119;Aaron L.Friedberg,“The Debate Over US China Strategy,”Survival,Vol.57,No.3,2015,pp.89-110;陶文钊:《美国对华政策大辩论》,《现代国际关系》2016年第1期。

[19]The White House,National Security Strategy 2017,Washington,D.C.,December 2017,p.2.

[20]Department of Defense,Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy of the United States of America:Sharpening the American Military’s Competitive Edge,Arlington,V.A.,January 2018.

[21]Amy Belasco,The Cost of Iraq,Afghanistan,and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 9/11,CRS Report for Congress,Washington,D.C.,December 8,2014,pp.5-7.事实上,仅仅是伊拉克战争,有学者就认为美国的真实成本远远大于当前的统计数字,参见[美]约瑟夫·斯蒂格利茨、琳达·比尔米斯《三万亿美元的战争:伊拉克战争的真实成本》,卢昌崇、孟韬、李浩译,中国人民大学出版社2013年版。

[22]“Casualty Status,”Department of Defense,December 9,2019(http://www.defense.gov/casualty.pdf).

[23]Gian P.Gentile,“A Strategy of Tactics:Population-centric COIN and the Army,”Parameters,Vol.39,No.3,2009,pp.5-17.

[24]详细的讨论,参见 Bob Woodward,Obama’s War,New York:Simon & Schuster,2010。

[25]王缉思:《大国战略》,中信出版社2016年版,第225—239页。

[26]对于理性主义路径的详细讨论,参见[美]彼得·卡赞斯坦、罗伯特·基欧汉和斯蒂芬·克拉斯纳:《世界政治理论的探索与争鸣》,秦亚青等译,上海人民出版社2006年版。

[27]Janice Gross Stein,“Threat Perception in International Relations,”in Leonie Huddy,David O.Sears,and Jack S.Levy,eds.,The Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology,2nd edition,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2013,p.366.

[28]J.David Singer,“Threat-Perception and the Armament-Tension Dilemma,”The Journal of Conflict Resolution,Vol.2,No.1,1958,pp.90-105.

[29][美]汉斯·摩根索:《国家间政治:权力斗争与和平》(第7 版),徐昕等译,北京大学出版社2006年版,第14章;[美]肯尼斯·华尔兹:《国际政治理论》,信强译,上海人民出版社2008年版。

[30]William Curti Wohlforth,The Elusive Balance:Power and Perceptions During the Cold War,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1993.

[31]Thomas Christensen,“Perceptions and Alliances in Europe,1865-1940,”International Organization,Vol.51,No.1,1997,pp.65-97;刘丰:《制衡的逻辑:结构压力、霸权正当性与大国行为》,世界知识出版社2010年版。

[32][美]斯蒂芬·沃尔特:《联盟的起源》,周丕启译,北京大学出版社2007年版。

[33]Kai He,“Undermining Adversaries:Unipolarity,Threat Perception,and Negative Balancing Strategies after the Cold War,”Security Studies,Vol.21,No.2,2012,pp.154-191.

[34]Daryl G.Press,Calculating Credibility:How Leaders Assess Military Threats,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2005;Keren Yarhi-Milo,“In the Eye of the Beholder:How Leaders and Intelligence Communities Assess the Intentions of Adversaries,”International Security,Vol.38,No.1,2013,pp.7-51;Keren Yarhi-Milo,Knowing the Adversary:Leaders,Intelligence,and Assessment of Intentions in International Relations,Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,2014.

[35]Jack S.Levy,“Declining Power and the Preventive Motivation for War,”World Politics,Vol.40,No.1,1987,pp.82-107.

[36]关于权力转移理论,代表性的文献,参见Abramo F.K.Organski,World Politics,New York:Alfred A.Knopf,1968;Abramo F.K.Organski and Jacek Kugler,The War Ledger,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1981.对中美之间权力转移的讨论,参见 Ronald L.Tammen and Jacek Kugler,“Power Transition and China-US Conflicts,”The China Journal of International Politics,Vol.1,No.1,2006,pp.35-55;Jacek Kugler,“The Asian Ascent:Opportunity for Peace or Precondition for War?”International Studies Perspectives,Vol.7,No.1,2006,pp.36-42;朱锋和罗伯特·罗斯主编:《中国崛起:理论与政策的视角》,上海人民出版社2008年版;阎学通:《权力中心转移与国际体系转变》,《当代亚太》2012年第6期。

[37]Denny Roy,“The‘China Threat’Issue:Major Arguments,”Asian Survey,Vol.36,No.8,1996,pp.758-771;Hebert Yee and Ian Storey,The China Threat:Perceptions,Myths and Reality,New York:Routledge,2002;Bill Gertz,The China Threat:How the People’Republic Targets America,Washington,D.C.:Regnery Publishing,2002;Emma V.Broomfield,“Perceptions of Danger:The China Threat Theory,”Journal of Contemporary China,Vol.12,No.35,2003,pp.265-284;Robert S.Ross,“Assessing the China Threat,”The National Interest,No.81,2005,pp.81-87.

[38][美]约翰·米尔斯海默:《大国政治的悲剧》,王义桅、唐小松译,上海人民出版社2003年版。

[39]Aaron L.Friedberg,“The Future of U.S.-China Relations:Is Conflict Inevitable?”International Security,Vol.30,No.2,2005,pp.7-45;Avery Goldstein,Rising to the Challenge:China’s Grand Strategy and International Security,Stanford:Stanford University Press,2005;John J.Mearsheimer,“The Gathering Storm:China’s Challenge to US Power in Asia,”The Chinese Journal of International Politics,Vol.3,No.4,2010,pp.381-396;Adam P.Liff and G.John Ikenberry,“Racing Toward Tragedy?:China’s Rise,Military Competition in the Asia Pacific,and the Security Dilemma,”International Security,Vol.39,No.2,2014,pp.52-91;Stephen G.Brooks and William C.Wohlforth,“The Rise and Fall of Great Powers in the Twenty-first Century:China’s Rise and the Fate of America’s Global Position,”International Security,Vol.40,No.3,2015/2016,pp.7-53.

[40]Jason W.Davidson,The Origins of Revisionist and Status-quo States,New York:Palgrave MacMillan,2006.

[41]Alastair Iain Johnston,Cultural Realism:Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History,Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1995.

[42]Andrew Scobell,China’s Use of Military Force:Beyond the Great Wall and the Long March,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2003.对中国外交政策越来越强势的讨论,代表性的研究参见Thomas J.Christensen,The Advantages of an Assertive China:Responding to Beijing’s Abrasive Diplomacy,”Foreign Affairs,Vol.90,No.2,2011,pp.54-67;Alastair Iain Johnston,“How New and Assertive Is China’s New Assertiveness?”International Security,Vol.37,No.4,2013,pp.7-48;Oriana Skylar Mastro,“Why Chinese Assertiveness is Here to Stay,”The Washington Quarterly,Vol.37,No.4,2015,pp.151-170;刘丰:《中国东亚安全战略转变及其解释》,《国际政治科学》2016年第3期。

[43][美]兰德尔·施韦勒:《没有应答的威胁:均势的政治制约》,刘丰、陈永译,北京大学出版社2015年版。

[44]F.Gregory Gause III,“Balancing What?:Threat Perception and Alliance Choice in the Gulf,”Security Studies,Vol.13,No.2,2003/2004,pp.273-305.

[45]Jefferey W.Taliaferro,Balancing Risks:Great Power Intervention in the Periphery,Cornell,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2004.

[46]樊吉社:《威胁评估、国内政治与冷战后美国的导弹防御计划》,《美国研究》2000年第3期。

[47]Alexander George,Presidential Decisionmaking in Foreign Policy:The Effective Use of Information and Advice,Boulder,Colorado:Westview Press,1980;John Burke and Fred Greenstein,How Presidents Test Reality:Decisions on Vietnam,1954 and 1965,New York:Russell Sage Foundation,1989;[美]欧文·贾尼斯:《小集团思维:决策及其失败的心理学研究》,张清敏等译,中央编译出版社2016年版。

[48]David Shambaugh,“The Insecurity of Security:The PLA’s Evolving Doctrine and Threat Perceptions towards 2000,”Journal of Northeast Asia,Vol.13,No.1,1994,pp.3-25;Allen S.Whiting,“The PLA and China’s Threat Perceptions,”China Quarterly,No.146,1996,pp.596-615;David Shambaugh,“China’s Military Views the World:Ambivalent Security,”International Security,Vol.24,No.3,1999/2000,pp.52-79.

[49]Richard K.Betts,“Conventional Deterrence:Predictive Uncertainty and Policy Confidence,”World Politics,Vol.37,No.2,1985,pp.153-179.

[50]Robert Jervis and Jack Snyder eds.,Dominoes and Bandwagons:Strategic Beliefs and Great Power Competition in the Eurasian Rimland,New York:Oxford University Press,1991.

[51]Chaim Kaufmann,“Threat Inflation and the Failure of the Marketplace of Ideas:The Selling of the Iraq War,”International Security,Vol.29,No.1,2004,pp.5-48;A.Trevor Thrall and Jane K.Cramer,eds.,American Foreign Policy and The Politics of Fear:Threat Inflation since 9/11,London and New York:Routledge,2009.

[52][美]托马斯·谢林:《军备及其影响》,毛瑞鹏译,上海人民出版社2011年版;[美]托马斯·谢林:《冲突的战略》,赵华等译,华夏出版社2006年版;[美]托马斯·谢林:《承诺的策略》,王永钦、薛峰译,上海人民出版社2009年版;James Fearon,“Rationalist Explanations for War,”International Organization,Vol.49,No.3,1995,pp.379-414。中国学者也有一些研究,请参见蒲晓宇《地位信号、多重观众与中国外交再定位》,《外交评论》2014年第2 期;尹继武《诚意信号表达与中国外交的战略匹配》,《外交评论》2015年第3期。

[53]Hans J.Morgenthau,“The Four Paradoxes of Nuclear Strategy,”The American Political Science Review,Vol.58,No.1,1964,pp.23-35.

[54]对观众成本如何影响战略行为的代表性讨论,参见James D.Fearon,“Domestic Political Audiences and the Escalation of International Disputes,”The American Political Science Review,Vol.88,No.3,1994,pp.577-592;Kenneth A.Schultz,Democracy and Coercive Diplomacy,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2004;林民旺:《选择战争:基于规避损失的战争决策理论》,世界知识出版社2010年版。

[55]Robert Jervis,The Logic of Images in International Relations,Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1970;Andrew Kydd,Trust and Mistrust in International Relations,Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,2005;唐世平:《我们时代的安全战略理论:防御性现实主义》,北京大学出版社2016年版。

[56]Herbert A.Simon,Models of Man,Social and Rational:Mathematical Essays on Rational Human Behavior in a Social Setting,New York:John Wiley and Sons,1957.

[57][美]罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,秦亚青译,世界知识出版社2003年版。

[58][美]罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,秦亚青译,世界知识出版社2003年版。中国学者的一些研究,参见邱美荣《威胁认知与朝核危机》,《当代亚太》2005年第6期;刘新华、秦仪《威胁认知:美国对中国发展的错误知觉》,《现代国际关系》2006年第6期。

[59]尹继武:《认知心理学在国际关系研究中的应用:进步及其问题》,《外交评论》2006年第4期。

[60]冯惠云:《防御性的中国战略文化》,《国际政治科学》2005年第4 期;Huiyun Feng,Chinese Strategic Culture and Foreign Policy Decision-Making:Confucianism,Leadership and War,London and New York:Routledge,2007;Huiyun Feng,“Is China a Revisionist Power?”The Chinese Journal of International Politics,Vol.2,No.3,2009,pp.313-334.

[61]Robert Jervis,The Logic of Images in International Relations,Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1970;Richard Herrman,“Perceptions and Image Theory in International Relations,”in Leonie Huddy,David O.Sears,and Jack S.Levy,eds.,The Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology,2nd edition,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2013.

[62]蒲晓宇:《霸权的印象管理:地位信号、地位困境与美国亚太再平衡战略》,《世界经济与政治》2014年第9期。

[63]D Daryl G.Press,Calculating Credibility:How Leaders Assess Military Threats,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2005;Yaacov Vertzberger,The World in Their Minds:Information Processing,Cognition,and Perception in Foreign Policy Decisionmaking,Stanford:Stanford University Press,1990;Jonathan Mercer,Reputation and International Politics,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1996.

[64]Richard E.Neustadt and Ernest R.May,Thinking in Time:The Uses of History for Decision-Makers,New York:The Free Press,1986;Yuen Foong Khong,Analogies at War:Korea,Munich,Dien Bien Phu,and The Vietnam Decisions of 1965,Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1992;Jack S.Levy,“Learning and Foreign Policy:Sweeping a Conceptual Minefield,”International Organization,Vol.48,No.2,1994,pp.279-312;张清敏、潘丽君:《类比、认知与毛泽东的对外政策》,《世界经济与政治》2010年第11 期;张清敏:《隐喻、问题表征与毛泽东的对外政策》,《国际政治研究》2011年第2 期;傅强、袁正清:《隐喻与对外政策:中美关系的隐喻之战》,《外交评论》2017年第2期。

[65]李开盛:《认知、威胁时滞与国家安全决策》,《世界经济与政治》2004年第10期。

[66][美]郝拓德、安德鲁·罗斯:《情感转向:情感的类型及其国际关系影响》,《外交评论》2011年第4期;Todd Hall,Emotional Diplomacy:Official Emotion on the International Stage,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2015.

[67]Barry O’Neill,Honor,Symbols,and War,Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press,1999.

[68]Leonie Huddy,Stanley Feldman,Charles Taber and Gallya Lahav,“Threat,Anxiety,and Support of Antiterrorism Polices,”American Journal of Political Science,Vol.49,No.3,2005,pp.593-608;尹继武:《国际政治心理学研究的新进展:基本评估》,《国外理论动态》2016年第1期;尹继武:《诚意信号表达与中国外交的战略匹配》,《外交评论》2015年第3期。

[69]Shiping Tang,“Fear in International Politics:Two Positions,”International Studies Review,Vol.10,No.3,2008,pp.451-471.

[70]和解是中外学术界研究的热点话题,代表性的研究参见 William Long and Peter Brecke,War and Reconciliation:Reason and Emotion in Conflict Resolution,Cambridge,Mass.:The MIT Press,2003;Jennifer Lind,Sorry States:Apologies in International Politics,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2008;Yinan He,The Search for Reconciliation:Sino-Japanese and Germany-Polish Relations after WWII,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2009;Lin Ren,Rationality and Emotion:Comparative Studies of the Franco-German and Sino-Japanese Reconciliations,Berlin:Springer VS,2014;沈志华、李丹慧:《中美和解与中国对越外交(1971-1973)》,《美国研究》2000年第1 期;唐世平:《和解与无政府状态的再造:基于六部作品的批判性综述》,《国际政治科学》2012年第1 期;吕蕊:《和解政治与联邦德国—以色列建交》,《欧洲研究》2013年第4 期;王高阳:《理解国际关系中的“和解”:一个概念性框架》,《世界经济与政治》2016年第2期。

[71][美]亚历山大·温特:《国际政治的社会理论》,秦亚青译,上海人民出版社2000年版,第5章。

[72]Ted Hopf,Social Construction of Foreign Policy:Identities and Foreign Policies,Moscow,1955 and 1999,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2002.

[73]David Rousseau,Identifying Threats and Threatening Identities:The Social Construction of Realism and Liberalism,Stanford:Stanford University Press,2006;David Rousseau and Rocio Garcia-Retamero,“Identity,Power,and Threat Perception:A Cross-National Experimental Study,”Journal of Conflict Resolution,Vol.51,No.5,2007,pp.744-771.

[74]聂文娟:《东盟对华的身份定位与战略分析》,《当代亚太》2015年第1期。

[75]陆伟:《荣誉偏执、身份迷思与日本战略偏好的转向》,《当代亚太》2016年第4期。

[76]Barry R.Posen,The Source of Military Doctrine:France,Britain,and Germany between the World Wars,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1984.

[77]Elizabeth Kier,Imagining War:French and British Military Doctrine between Wars,Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1997.

[78]Valki László,ed.,Changing Threat Perceptions and Military Doctrines,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,1992.

[79]Jack L.Snyder,The Ideology of Offensive:Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1984;Barry R.Posen,Inadvertent Escalation:Conventional War and Nuclear Risks,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1992;Mark L.Haas,The Ideological Origins of Great Power Politics,1789-1989,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,2005.对军事组织文化对国家行为的研究,参见Jeffrey W.Legro,“Military Culture and Inadvertent Escalation in World War II,”International Security,Vol.18,No.4,Spring 1994,pp.108-142;Jeffrey W.Legro,“Which Norms Matter?Revisiting the‘Failure’of Internationalism,”International Organization,Vol.51,No.1,1997,pp.35-38。

[80]João Resende-Santos,Neorealism,States,and the Modern Mass Army,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007;左希迎:《新精英集团、制度能力与国家的军事效仿行为》,《世界经济与政治》2010年第10期;Burak Kadercan,“Strong Armies,Slow Adaptation:Civil-Military Relations and the Diffusion of Military Power,”International Security,Vol.38,No.3,2013/2014,pp.117-152.

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